44
GENERAL INDEX.
Ticinus, 15 n
Tien, the lord of heaven, 26 a Tigellinus, wife of Nero, 21 a Tiglathpileser, 8 1), d, g Tigranes I., 16 b, 18 a, b Tigranocerta, 18 b Tiraaus, or Concharis, 6 b Timeus of Loris, 28 c Timocrates, 13 a Timoleon, 13 d, g Timothseus, 13 a Tiridates, 14 b, 18 a
---------king of Armenia, 20 e
Ti88apberne8,13 a Titus, 37 a
-----F. V., emp., 21 a, 37 a
Tmolus, 6 h Tobit, 26 a Togarmab, 4 h Tola, 6 e Toftghan, 20 a To-Pa, people of, 23 h Trachonitis, 20 f Trade and manufacture, 27 e, 31 d, 35 d
-----on the Red sea, 6 e
-----of the isle of Rhodes, 31 d
----of the Romans with India,
35 d
—— tax upon, 35 a
-----of the Seleucidse, 31 d
Trajan, 21 a, 22 d, 34 b, 37 e Trajan’s forum, 37 a
-------pillar, 37 a
— and Adrian, splendid edifices of, 37 a
-------bridge, 37 a
Transmigration of the soul, 28 c
Trszen, 16 r
Trezenians, 9 g
Treasury of the Greek states, 31a
Trebia, 15 n
Tribonis, 9 b
Tribunes in the senate, 17 h
------- (first), of the people,
30 b
-------their power limited, 34 b
Trigonometry, 32 d Tripolis, city of, 6 b Triremes, 9 d, 27 c Tritea, 16 r
Triumph in Rome, (first,) 33 e Triumphal arch of Titus, 37 a
.-------------of Sept. Severn,
37 a
Triumvirate (first) of Ctesar, Pompey, and Crassus, 19 b, 34 b
----------second, 19 b, 34 b
Troglodyte, 5 a Trojan era, 1 Trojans, 4 g Tros, 6 g Troy founded, 6 g
----siege of, 6 g
Trypho, 16 k Tschang Heng, 20 a Tshenkue, 10 g Tschin-ti, 19 e Telling Wang, 14 k Tsin, dynasty of, 14 k Tur, 7 a
Tullus Hostilius, 9 f Turan, 7 a Turks, 37 b
----in Asia Minor, 23 h
Tuta Yuga, 4 a Tyre, 4 d, 6 b, 12 d -----new, 10 c
Tyrannic government of kings, 26 b
Tyrmas, 9 d, e Tyrteus, 9 d, 28 b Tysca, 17 f
Ubii, 19 d
Uffa in Britain, 24 a Upanishads, 28 c Olpian, lawyer, 34 c Ulpianus, 22 d
Ulpius Marcellus in Britain, 21 b Umbrians, 5 d Universal empire, 30 b Ural mountains, 23 h Urban I., pope, 22 e Ursinus, 25. a
Usipii joined with the Aleman-ni, 23 c Utica, 7 c Uzziah, 6 e, 8 f
Vaibsshixa, 28 c Vaivaswatu, 4 a Valens, emperor, 25 b, c Valentinian, 24 d
---------— III., 24 d
Valerian, Rom. emp., 22 a, d Valerius Maximus, 21 a, 36 e Val. Flaccus, 36 b Valmiki, 32 b
Vandals first make a figure in history, 21 c
-------plunder Rome, 24 d
-------empire of the, 25 c
Vangiones joined with the Ale-manni, 23 c Vararuchi, 19 f, 36 a Varanes, or Bahram I., 22 a
--------II., 22 a
--------III., 22 a
--------IV., 25 e
--------V., 25 e
--------VI., 25 e
Vardanes, 20 d Varro, 1
Varus on the Weser, 21 c Vatican, 37 c Vedanta, 28 e Vedas, 7 f, 26 a
Veii, city of, 11 e, 13 e Velleda the prophetess, 21 c Velleius Paterculus, 36 e Vcneti, 5 d Vene, vidi, trid, 19 b Venice, foundation of, 30 d Venones I., king of Armenia Major, 20 e Ventidius, 18 a Venus Anadyomene, 33 c Verus, L. Aur., omperor, 21 a Vespasian, 21 a, 36 b, 37 a Vesta, temple of, 37 a Vestini, 5 d
Vesuvius, eruption of, 21 a Via Appia, 13 f — Flaminia, 16 o Vieesima hereditatum, 19 b Victor, pope, 20 g
-------martyr, 22 e
Victory over the Ammonites, 6 e
-------of Himera, 10 e
Vikramaditya, 19 f, 36 a
--------------era of, 1.
Villa Adriani at Tivoli, 37 a Villas outside of Rome, 37 a Vindex’s revolt, 21 a Vine brought into France, 27 d Vines and olives in Italy, 31 c Vipsania, 39 Virgil, 36 b, 37 o Viriatlius, 17 i Vishnu, 26 a, 32 b Visigoths, empire of the, founded, 24 b
Vitelius, emp., 21 a Vitruvius, 19 b, 37 a Volero, lie Vologeses, 20 d, 22 a Volsci, or Aurunci, 6 d Volusian Cesar, 22 d Vonones I., 20 d --------II., 20 d
Vortigem, 24 a Vulcan’s temple, Vulgar era, 1 Vyasa, 7 f, 32 b
29 a
Wail of Antoninus, 21 b
----- of stone across Britain,
22 c
-----of China, 33 a
-----from the Danube to the
Rhine, 22 d
-----across n. of England, 21 a
Wallia, k. of the Visigoths, 24 b Walls of Jerusalem, 30 a War with the Batavians, 21 a
----between the Chatti and
Hermunduri, 21 c
----between the Cherusci and
Marcomanni, 21 c
----between the Chinese and
Huns, 16 o
----and marine, 27 c, 31 b, 35 a
—— with Moab, 6 e
----with the Parthians, 21 a
----between Persia and Rome,
22 a
----with Pharnaces, 19 b
----with Philip of Macedon,
17 a
----of the Pirates, 19 c
----in Spain, 19 a
----with Spurta, 9 d
----with Spartacus, 15 p
----with the Syracusans, 20 e
----between the Vandals and
Suevi, 24 b
Wars with the Alemanni, 22 p Water the soul of the world, 28 d
Wen-Ti, of China, 16 n Westphali, a Saxon tribe, 23 a Wine invented by Noah, 27 d Word of Truth, 34 a
Workhouse for imprisoned slaves, 29 e
Xahthipptjs, 15 n Xanthus, 28 b.
Xenophanes, 28 c Xenophon, 31 b, 32 a, c, e Xerxes, 10 a, 11 a
-------expedition into Greece,
31b
-------II., 10 a
Xuthus, 38
Yao, 27 d Yudhishrhira, 7 f Yugas, 4 a
Zabian idolatry, 4 b Zachariah, 8 g Zacyntbus, 11 a Zacynthian exiles, 13 a Zaleucus, 9 g, 27 a Zama, battle of, 16 n, o Zamolxis, 11 c Zancle, 7 e
Zaraiadras of Syria, 161 Zaueces, 5 aj Zedekiab, 8 f Zeno, 28 e, 32 c Zenobia of Palmyra, 22 d Zepirinus, pope, 22 e Zerah the Ethiopian, 6 e Zerdusht, Zoroaster, 7 a Zeuxis, 32 a, 33 o Zielas, 14 e Zimri, 6 f Zipsetes, 12 b, 14 e Zooa, city of, or Nisibis, 6 o Zodiac at Dendera, 28 d Zohak, 7 a
Zosimus, pope, 25 a, 36 e Zu, or Zav, 7 a Zurich, 24 c
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
OF MODERN HISTORY
FROM THE OVERTHROW OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST TO THE PRESENT TIME.
CONTAINING ’
ALL THE GREAT EVENTS OF THE CIVIL, EELIGIOUS, AND LITEKARY HISTORY OF THE EUROPEAN NATIONS, AND OF SUCH OTHERS AS ARE CONNECTED WITH THEM,
IN A SERIES OF PARALLEL COLUMNS, SO AS TO PRESENT TO THE READER, AT ONE VIEW, THE TRANSACTIONS AND CONDITION OF THE VARIOUS STATES OF THE CIVILISED WORLD.
TOGETHER WITH
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
OP
MODERN CIVILISATION, SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE, GENEALOGICAL TABLES OF THE REIGNING HOUSES IN EUROPE, AND A COMPLETE INDEX.
OXFORD:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY D. A. TALBOYS.
AND 113, FLEET STREET, LONDON.
M DCCC XL.
CONTENTS
PAGE
I.	SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES...........2
II.	SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF MODERN HISTORY..........................26
III.	SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF MODERN CIVILISATION, SCIENCE, AND LITE-
RATURE............•...............................................59
1. Goveenment		. ... 56 a,	58 a,	62 a,	66 a
2. Politics and Foeeign Relations ....	. . . . 56 b,	58 b,	62 b,	66 b
3. Legislation and Jueispeudence ....		58 c,	62 c,	66 c
4. Finance		. ... 57 a,	58 d,	62 d,	66 d
5. Wae and Maeine		. ... 57 b,	59 a,	63 a,	67 a
6. Ageicultuee, Peasantby, etc		. . . . 57 c,	59 b,	63 b,	67 b
7. Trade and Manufactubes		. . . . 24 d,	59 c,	63 c,	67 c
8. Political Science and Obatoby ....	. . . . 59 d,	63 d,	67 d	
9. Civilisation in genebal		. . . . 59 e,	63 e,	67 e	
10. Luxubies, Mannees, etc		. ... 60 a,	64 a		
11. Philosophy		. ... 24 a,	60 b,	64 b,	70 a
12. Physics		. . . . 60 c,	64 c,	70 b	
13. Histoby, etc		. . . . 60 d,	64 d,	70 c	
14. Abchitectube and Sculptube		. . . . 57 d,	60 e,	64 e	
15. Music		. ... 24 c,	60 f,	65 d	
16. POETBY AND WOBKS OP IMAGINATION . . . .	, ... 24 b,	61 a, 1	b, c, 65 a, b,	
17. Education		... 61 d			
IV.	SYNOPTICAL VIEW OF MODERN PAINTERS..............................................68
V.	GENEALOGICAL TABLES OF MODERN HISTORY............................................71
1.	Kings op England......................................................71
2.	House op Beunswick....................................................71
3.	House op Wettin in Saxony, Belgium, Cobueg, etc.......................71
4	Mayoes op the Palace, Dukes and Peinces op the Fbanks undee the lateb Meeo-
VINGIANS...............................................................72
5.	Kings of Feance—House op Bouebon-Anjou in Spain, Naples, Paema, Lucca—House
op Beaganza in Poetugal and Beazil.....................................72
6.	Geeman Empeeoes—House op Hapsbueg in Geemany and Spain—House op Loeeaine
in Austeia, Tuscany, Modena, and Paema.................................73
7.	Electoes, Kings, and Dukes op Pbussia op the	House op Hohenzolleen....73
8. The Empeeoes op Russia—the Kings op Denmaek and Sweden—the House op
Oldenbueg..............................................................73
VI.	GENERAL INDEX
74
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
OF THE HISTORY OF
THE MIDDLE AGES
CONTAINING
ALT, THE GREAT EVENTS OF THE CIVIL, RELIGIOUS, AND LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EUROPEAN NATIONS, AND OF SUCH OTHERS AS ARE CONNECTED WITH THEM IN A SERIES OF PARALLEL COLUMNS, SO AS TO PRESENT TO THE READER, AT ONE VIEW, THE TRANSACTIONS AND CONDITION OF THE VARIOUS STATES OF THE CIVILISED WORLD.
OXFORD:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY D. A. TALBOYS,
AND 113, FLEET STREET, LONDON.
MDCccxxxrm,
Table i.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
Fifth and
400
FORMATION OF NEW STATES UPON THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
Spain.	”
Britain.
8. Tin-land.—O'Bbi BN.
Britain Ib derived from Bruit-tan, 1.
During the abode of the Romans in Britain, its inhabitants gradually adopted the civilisation and manners, the dress, language, and literature of their conquerors; and when the Roman legions no longer remained to protect them, they armed themselves, declared themselves independent, and drove from their coasts the barbarians who bad been excited by Gerontius to invade them. Independent Britain, from the year 410, contained many independent republics or civitates. each governed by magistrates, a senate, with other necessary officers. There was generally a bishop in each, whose power frequently extended to lay matters—These civitates were relics of the Roman government.
From this time to the settlement of the Saxons, the country was torn by the domestic quarrels of numerous petty chieftains, and harassed by the continual inroads of the Scots and Piets, and the Ghetes or Jutes. Vohtigbrn, 445-484, is said to have been chosen chief monarch of the Britons, who, 456, complain in vain to jEtius, the Roman governor of Gaul, of the invasions of the Scots and Piets.
ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, 449-1066.
449 Hengibt and Hobsa, visiting the isle ofThanet with three ships, are engaged with 6000 men, by Vortigkbn, to expel the Scots and Piets. After ridding the country of these marauders, they quarrel with the Britons; and being strongly reinforced by fresh bands of their countrymen, they gradually settle in the country, the ancient inhabitants being either murdered, reduced to slavery, or driven into the mountainous districts of Wales. In the struggle which takes place Hobsa is killed, but HENGI9T founds the
Kingdom of Kent, 454-823.
comprising Kent, Middlesex, Essex, and part of Surrey: capital Canterbury. Hengist, descended from Woden, 4i54-488. jEsc, 488-512, succeeds Hengist.
The success of the freebooters encouraged fresh attempts, and seven or eight Saxon kingdoms were successively founded ; the king of one of these however was generally acknowledged as chief by the others, and had the title of Bretwalda (wielder or sovereign of Britain). The tirst of these was Ella, who landed 477, and founded the
Kingdom of Sussex, (South Saxons), 490-721, containing Sussex and part of Surrey. Of this insignificant kingdom no records remain after the time of Scissa,
Ella, 490-614, Bretwalda L
These kings were merely military leaders, who could do nothing without the consent of their brother warriors. It was only by degrees that their powers increased, and they became entrusted with the execution of the decrees passed in the Witena-gemot, or assembly of the elders ol the people. The king was the creation of his people ; for though generally some one of the royal family was chosen, the throne was rather elective than hereditary—hence the power of these kings was more limited than that of almost any others in Europe.
Octa, 512-542, in Kent.
% Cerdic, after twenty-four years of arduous warfare with the Britons, (who ~T* bravely defended themselves under AmbbosiU9 (<L 608). and King \ Arthur, who is said to have defeated the Saxons in severarbattle9, particularly Cerdic, at the battle of Mount Baden (Bath), 511), founds the
Kingdom of Wessex, (West Saxons), 519, which ultimately unites to itself the whole English monarchy. It included Hants, Dorset, Wilts, Berks, Isle of Wight, Devon, Cornwall, etc.
Cerdic, 619-534, gains little more than Hants.
Cynbic, 534-560, a warlike prince—gains Wilts, Oxfordshire, and Bucks.
Kingdom of Essex, (East Saxons), 530-823, is founded by Eswyn, 537-684,—it makes but little figure in history— comprised Middlesex and London.
Eormenric, 542-560, succeeds in Kent.
500
The earliest inhabitants of Spain were Iberians, and then Celts, whose origin is wrapped in im-penetrable darkness. Before the timesof history t became the seat of commerce—the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Phocians had settlements here, and the Carthaginians almost entirely subjugated the country—it next became the theatre of war between this nation and the Romans—it was reduced to a Roman province 205 B.C., and became one of ,the most flourishing of the empire.
395-402 Spain was agitated by the invasions of the fierce hordes of barbarians who poured into Europe from the north. The iSVeoi, under H kr-mkric, the Alans, under Atace, and the Vandals or Silingi, under Gundehic, broke through the Pyrenean barrier, and poured the tide of deatruction over the Peninsula.
The Visigoths.
Ataulphus, who had married Placidia, the aisterof Honorius, in 411, makes a triumphant entry into Barcelona—is assassinated, 415. 415 Siqkuic succeeds him, a cruel monster. Wallia, 415-419, elected—he obtains an advantageous peace from Rome, 417—by successive victories he exterminates the Silmgi, and forces the Suevi, the Alans, and Vandals to take refuge in the mountains of Gallicia. Theodobic I., 419-451,—he strengthens the power of the Visigoths in the south of France and Spain.
429 The Vandals, under Genseric, cross over into Africa.
The history of the Suevi In Qallicia end part of nia, is merely,an account of their wars with the Visigoths. They became firet Arums, but afterwards embraced the Catholio faith. In 673 they were united to the Spanish monarchy.
Francs.
The present France was inhabited in remote ages by Celtic tribes—to these succeeded the Gauls—the origin of both being lost in the darkness of antiquity.
The Gauls long and bravely struggled against the legions of Rome: C^sar, however, finally subdued them ; and after that event they soon lost their nationality, and became confounded by the ties of blood with their vanquishers, sharing their honours and glory, their dangers and miseries.	Druids and Bards.
The Frank*, from whom the present French nation claims descent, were of German origin, and dwelt in the districts which now form the provinces of Franconia, Westphalia, aud Thuringia. They united with the Ale-manni, and overran Gaul in the time of Valerian and G rati an, 253-268, and took possession of some of the finest provinces of Hie empire. They were soon, however, taken into the pay of the Romans, and faithfully and valiantly protected their frontiers, particularly upon the invasion of the Radagaisus, 400.
The Frankish chiefs were now trusted with the highest military posts and honours—on several were conferred the consular dignity. They worshipped the sun, moon, fire, aud other material objects ; sacrificed human victims, wolves, sheep, etc.: their chiefs were elective, power limited, tribute voluntary—their historians, bards or scalds.
First Dynasty—Merovingians.
1.	) Pharamond, ab. 420-428.
ThU prince, whose existence hue been doubted, Is said to ''tvs led the Frank, across the Bhme. aud to bare taken up Ills quarters .In Flanders. This honour Is now generally attributed to Clovis.
2.	) Clodion, 428-448, defeated at Soissons by JEtius.
8.) Mbrovius, 448-456, - he powerfully assists in the
defeat of Attila, and thus earns the privilege of giving
his name to the first race of French kings.
Theodoric fall* In the battle of Chalona-anr-Marne, In which Attila ia defeated, 451.
Thorismond, 451-453, assassinated by his brother,
Theodoric II., 453-466, who is murdered by his brother,
Eubic, 466-484, he and hi* brother Theodoric
.......... * ‘ ' ----------------1-1
4.	) Childkric, 456-481, exiled 457—restored465— exteuds the dominion! of the Franks to the Loire.
5.	) Clovis, 481-511, the true founder cums not the of the French monarchy : capital Paris, king of Gaul, but
486 Defeats Syagrius at Soissons—END '0
are regarded as the two best and greatest mon-1 op THE Roman dominion.
archs of the Visigoths. Fratricide, in those days, was thought so little of as scarcely to detract from this character. tUKlC becomes entirely independent of Rome, and is regarded as the real founder of the Gothic monarchy of Spain.
Legislation op the Visigoths.
Alaric II., 484-607.
507 Defeated and slain by Clovis, aided by the Burgundians, at VougU, neur Poitiers.
Toulouse and Aquitaine conquered by the Franks.
These pretended kings of France and Spain, were nothing more then military chiefs, elected by their soldieis; uud must not be regarded as inonarciis bom toinlierlt a fixed territory, hut as seiul-barbarous cuiiquerurs, encamped In the midst of a country which they had subdued. Their courts, or head-quarters, were continually changed—the habits of a wandering life could not be broken through at ouce An odd mixture of religious, laws, and government prevailed—the refined paganism of Greece aud Borne, the aavage creeds of the Celtic, German, and Scandinavian races, with the purer faith of Christl-auity, dwelt sidu by side. In laws and government, the power of the church, the Roman laws and the rude customs of the barbarians, were mingled in the same manner.
. _ the Franks -sovereign captain of the army
—grants of lar
496 Gains a victory over the Alemanni, to hU soldiers, at Tolbiac—they submit to him, and are governed by their own dukes till the time of Pepin—embraces Christianity, and is baptized at Rheims.
500 Defeats Gondebald and ravages Burgundy.
600
The Kingdom of Bernicia was founded by Ida, 547-559, a descendant of Wodin—it comprised Northumberland, Durham, and part of Scotland. About the same time
The Kingdom of Deira was founded by Ella, 560, upon the conquest of Laruashire and Yorhshire—these two kingdoms were united by the marriage of Ethelfrith, grandson of Ida, with Acca, daughter of Ella, and formed together
Northumbria.
The progress of the Angles in the north was slow—the Britons appear to have fought more bravely here than in any other part.
Ethelberht, 56 -616, king of Kent, a warlike prince, subdues most of the other Saxon kings.
Ceawlin, 560-591, k of Wessex, defeats the Britons in several battles— gains Gloucestershire and part of Somersetshire, and reigns as Bretwalda XL, 671, his brother defeats the Britons at Bedford.
East-Anglia, ab. 575, ia formed into a kingdom by Uffa.
The name of Angle-land was at first given to only a small part of the eastern coast, East-Engla-Iand.
The Kingdom of Mercia, 586, was the last founded by the Angles, and seems at first to have been considered aa part of Deira.
Cbida, 686, is named as its first sovereign, but his grandson Penda, first separated it from the dominion of the Northern Angles.
Ceawlin adds Sussex to his dominions—upon his death, 691, Ethelberht, k. of Kent, gains the preponderance and becomes Bretwalda IIL
Ethelberht is converted to Christianity by St. Augustine and forty monks, who are sent to England as missionaries by Pope Gregory, 596.
Nearly the whole of the western coast, from the mouth of the Clyde to the Land's-end, still belonged to the Britons.
The conquests of the Saxons replunged Britain into that state of barba-ism from which it had been raised by the Romans. On many occasions towns and villages, with their inhabitants, were involved in the same ruin— the captives, without distinction of rank, sex, or age, were divided with the lands among the conquerors—many found an asylum in the mountains—a large body, altogether abandoning the country, settled in Armorica, and save their names to the present Bretagne.
____Lie, 507-509.
Theodoric the GEEAT,kingof the Ostrogoths, * ’£>08-522, rules the affairs of Spain—be pre-Artlmr's death, 542. * serves Narbonne, wrested from the Visigoths by Clovis, to this empire, but joins Arles and Provence to his ow n.
AmalaBIC, 522-531,—the first Gothic king who establishes his court in Spain: capital, Seville. Marries Clotilda, daughterof Clovis; but persecuting her on account of her religion, she applies to her brother, Childebert—a war ensues, in which Amalaric is slain.
Theudis, 531-548, elected king.
Loses Gothic Gaul.
Tolerates the Catholics.
Rise of the Feudal System.
General assemblies in the Champ de Mars and elsewhere on all public affairs —the towns Bljll governed by man laws un mnnlclpalltle a Fraukleb graf, or count, generally added.
Theodisf.l, 548, (Licentious).
Aoila, 549-554.
Civil commotions, in which the king is slain. Athanagild, 554-567.
About this time the Greeks from Africa obtain possession of the southern coast, from the straits to Valentin.
Liuva, 567-572.
Interregnum.
Leovigild, 572-586,—victorious against the Greeks and numerous rebellions—also over his son, Ermenigila.
Persecutes the Catholics.
Makes an entire conquest of the kingdom of the Suevi, which is entirely overthrown, 587.
Improves the laws.
Kecared, 686-601, good and prosperous reign —establishes the Catholic faith throughout Spain—the clergy obtain great authority.
The Latin language supersedes the Gothic.
The Visigoths were the most civilised of the German tribes; the royal authority was better established among them, and exercised a wholesome sway even in times of peace.
510 Causes the other Frankish kings to be massacred. New compilation of the Salic law, 611.
First ctmncil at Orleans.
Clovis dies, 511, and his dominions are divided between bis four sons:
1.	) Childebert, k. of Paris, left an only daughter, who did not succeed—First example of the Salic law.
2.	) Clodomir, king of-Z\Vu«<r»'o, slain 524, in the Burgundian war—bis children were murdered by Childebert and Clotaire, who divided hia possessions between them.
3.	) CLOT A IRE, at Soissons, 511-561. Thuringia
4. ) Thierry, at Metz, 511-534.	conquered. Theodebbrt, 534-539, succeeds Thierry at Metz—ex-pedition into Italy for the purpose of making conquests— Provence and Rhcelia wrested from the Ostrogoths, 630. Clotaire, 658-561, sole monarch—collates to benefices
Upon hia death the kingdom is again divided (still with the consent of the Franks) between his four sons—the states were federative aud had a general assembly, in which were debated the affairs common to them all.
1.	) Cabibebt, reigns at Paris, 561-567.
2.	) GoNTRAN.kingof Orleans endBurgundy, 561-598.
3.	) Sigf.bert, king of Austrasia, (at Metz), 561-575, —wife Brunehilda.
4.	) ChilpehicI. (the French Nero), king of Neustria, (at Soissons)661-684—married the beautiful Fredegonda.
661—618 Continual changes In the possessions of the Merovingian princes, accompanied by scenes of tumult and bloodshed—Bruno-hUda and Fredegonda are celebrated for their crimes, and the power they exercise over these princes, whom they instigate to the most horrid deeds.
567 Caribert dies—hia kingdom occasions much strife, as each of hia brothers wish to possess it—thej finally come to an agreement, and live together at Paris. Childebert II., king of Austrasia, 575-596.
The aristocracy acquire great power, feebly controlled by the mayors of the palace, who are chiefa of the army, of the treaaury, and of the government.
Clotaire II., 684-628, succeeds Chilperic in Neustria, and reigns under his mother Fredegonda.
Thierry II., 596-613, king of Burgundy, and Theodebert II., 596-612, king of Austrasia, succeed their father Childebert, under the tutelage of their grandmother Brunehilda.
Rising power of the mayors of the palace.
b
Sixth Centuries.
THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
BARBARIAN PERIOD.
German Nations.
;hb Buroun-
OlANS.anuuierous	Eastern Ger-
nd warlike peo- many, beyond pie of the Vandal the Saale, is oc-raee, early occu- cupied by the pied part of the Slaviot Sclavo-Roman empire, nians, a people end were soon tak- differing from en into its pay— the German* in inthe middle of the language and fourth century manners.
‘they were seated on the Elbe; but
abo?4 J13* ,the The Alemanni, bnds, which form the Thuriugi. the present pro-	Rnd £he
nnceof Burgun- Saxon8 ^ Rt ^.were ceded to time> enemi them by Homo- r„ r tnbu. HlOlandthe torieR of the
■Sgr
Borgundiana "ay* carryiD8 ns rounded by on P*tty war* GondicaR, 413. aoi,on8 “em-
selves.
Embraces Christianity about 417. Catholics.
Gondebic,436.
They obtain tbe lands between tbe Loire and Alps, d Switzerland far as the Aar : capital, Lyons.
Chilpebic, 466, is associated with bis father, and afterwards succeeds him.
: Qondebald, his brother, ab. 477, revolts against him, and in the end puts him and the rest of his family to death, and seizes the
Qondebald, 4 91-	\
“*■ *
^ 502 Qondebald publishes a collection of the rights and customs of the Burgundians ; and thin valuable document formsthe Gombette law—
Bendinos, legis- ,,	_
frfoy ° Many Germanic tribes, particularly the Bavarians and 506 Tributary to Saxons join the the Franks. Lombards and ,	Avars in their
9l6 SlQISMOND. invasion Italy.
The Lombards (Langobardi), under Alboin, having, with the 684 Subdned by aid of the Avars the Franks— etc., destroyed they retain their tbe Gepida.o66 own laws and in- abandon Pan-stitutiona, and nonia to the A-pay a tax to the vars. and invade
Godomar, 6
Ab. 660 The Duchy of Poland is ■aid to have been founded by Lech I„ chief of the Scluvonians —after	bis
death the country was governed by
vodea.
Ab. the same time Zbck, brother of Leek, was the first duke of Bohemia.
Italy.
In 476 the tottering empire of the west was finally overthrown by Odo-acer’s sack of Borne—the great event which divides ancient and modern history.
Still the imperial government of Italy seems to have been but little changed by it—the senate still assembled—the consuls were yearly ap pointed—and the imperial laws were duly administered—and none of the municipal or provincial authorities were changed. But Italy was nearly a desert—its population had been swept away by every scourge under heaven—war, plague, famine, public tyranny, and domestic slavery.
476 Odoacer, king of Italy— he also subjugates Noricum and the Rugians— of the latter he brings numerous bodies into Italy to cultivate its lands, which had become depopulated.
The Ostrogoths under Theodoric, invade Italy—Odoacer defends it bravely—after losing three battles and enduring a three years’ siege in Ravenna, he obtains an honourable capitulation, but is murdered soon after. Theodoric completes the conquest of Italy and Sicily, and founds The Empire of the Ostrogoths.
Theodoric the Great, 493-526.
This empire included, besides Italy and Sicily, the provinces between the Danube and the Adriatic sea, Bluet ia, Norieum (Bavaria), Pannonia, Western Illyria, and the Upper Mcesia : capitals, Ravt nna and Verona.
Theodoric followed the example of Odoacer in granting his troops, half a million men (Ai'ianx), one-third of the lands as military fiefs—he established many wise institutions—consolidated the liberties of the Goths, their popular judicial proceedings, public deliberations, etc.—toleration of religion—liberties and municipalities of the Romans preserved.
500 Edict of Theodoric.
508 Conquest of Arles and Provence.
Italy flourishes.
Boethius and Symmachus condemned by Theodoric.
526 Theodoric <1.—buried at Ravenna. Athalaric (5 yrs. old), 526-534, under Amalasontha.
Theodatus, 534—slain 536. Unsuccessful war with Justinian, 535-553—the troops revolt and elect Vitiges, 536-641.
Belisarius takes Rome 536; but 537 it endures a long and disastrous siege from Vitiges.
538-539 The Franks whom Vitiges calUto his succour, ravage Italy, sack Miltn&nd Genoa and cut to pieces on the same day the armies of the Goths and of the Greeks, which had both reckoned on their assistance—they finally almost all perish by famine. 539 Vitiges raises the siege of Rome, and surrenders Ravenna, and himself as prisoner to Belisarius. Totilla, 541-552, re-establishes the powers of the Ostrogoths — takes Rome, 646, rases the walls, and expels the inhabitants.
552 Narses, the general of Justinian, invades Italy with 30,000 men—defeats the Goths near Rome (Totilla slain) and at Naples, 553, Teias slain.
OVERTHROWS THE GOTHIC MONARCHY.
554 Italy under Greek Exarchs, who exercise civil, military, and even ecclesiastical power.
The Christian church at the beginning of the fifth century was no longer what it had bee j at its rise—a simple association of believers in one common faith, meeting together to express their common opinions and convictions, and to enjoy their common emotions and feelings. The apostolic purity and simplicity in which it had been founded, had been corrupted by human inventions—various superstitious rites and ceremonies had been introduced —heresies and controversies were daily increasing—the simple truths of the gospel were adulterated by philosophical speculations and mysticisms —the bishops began to seek for worldly authority.
Oligarchy of the Bishops of Rome. Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem—all striving for supremacy.
The favour of princes bad given a new character to the church, ana makes it necessary that we should henceforward consider it under a more political aspect than it had hitherto assumed.
Simplicius, 468-483.
Felix II. or III., 483-492—he was excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of Constantinople.
Litanies and bells first used.
GelaSius I., 492-496 AnastaSI78 II., 496-497. Laurentius, 498,—schism between him and
Symmachus I., 498-514.
Publication of the Gemara, or Talmud of Babylon.
Seventh migration of the German nations.
Alboin's expedition from Pannonia Exarchs into Italy, 568—and conquest of at Ravenna the country, 672.
Kingdom of the Lombards.
Albion, 568-674—capital Pavia.
A military feudal system, but the Soman municipal government continues—tbe Lombards Jrians.
Clef, 673 {elected)—murdered 576.
676—684 Ooneral assemblies govern in the various provinces—they eleot dukes as presidents, of which there are from 30 to M.
AUTHABI8 (elected) 584-691. Successful against the Greeks and Franks.
Many troubles follow, but the monarchy by degrees becomes partly hereditary—population and agriculture Increase—towns are re-bullt-eivihsatlon advances.
AGILULF, 691-615.
War with the Falconry introduced.
NaBSES, 554— recalled 667.
Longinus,
Smabaodus,
684-590.
Romanus,
590-597.
Callinicus,
697-602.
Church History and Bishops of Rome.
Greek Empire at Constantinople.
The division of the Roman world between Ar-cadius and Honorins, marks the final establishment of the empire of the east, which endured 1058 years (395-1453) in a state of gradual decay. It was bounded by the Adriatic and the Tigris—the populous countries included within it were the seat of art and learning, of luxury and wealth ; and its inhabitants, who had assumed the language and manners of Greece, styled themselves the most enlightened and civilised portion of the human race. The government was an absolute monarchy—the emperors imitating, in the luxury and magnificence of their court, and the obedience they exacted from their servile subjects, the parade and despotism of eastern rulers.
438 Theodosian code of laws published.
Five emperors, Marcian, 450-457, Leo, 457-474, Leo II., 474, Zeno, 474-491, Anasta-8IU8, 491-518, were old men, feeble in mind and body, and raised to the throne by women, who governed in their name.
Ab 475 Theodoric (educated as an hostage at Constantinople), succeeds his father as kintr of the Ostrogoths, inhabiting Pannonia—he invaded the eastern empire and terrified Zeno into a purchase of his friendship—but a quarrel arising between them, Theoaoric ravages Thrace with great cruelty.
Sixth great migration of the German tribea.
Thodobic’s expedition from Thrace etc. into Italy, 489-493— tbe army and entire nation of tbe Ostrogoths leave Thrace; and, joined by Bulgarians, Gepidce&nd Sarmalians, invade and conquer Italy.
499 First invasion of the Bulgarians.
Hobmisdas, 514-523.
During this century genuine simplicity declines, aud luxury, ambition and avarice, especially among ecclesiastics, iucrease—the episcopal power waxes stronger.
The bishops of Rome and Constantinople struggle for supremacy.
Tbe bishops of Rome are still elected by the clergy and Roman people, and confirmed by the kings of Italy —the cardinals as yet are only presbyters, curates, or curiones, over the great churches at Rome, Ravenna, and Milan.
John I., 523-526.
Felix III. or IV., 526-530.
Extreme unction introduced.
529 Foundation of the monastery of Benedictines, at Monte Cussino, near Naples, the first monastery of the west—this order spreads rapidly —its original characteristics were not wealth and idleness, but austerity, poverty, and labour.
Boniface, 530-532.
John II., 532-635.
Aoapetus, 536-536.
Sii.vebius, 536-538.
536 Separation of tbe Armenian Christians from the Greek church. VioiLius, 538-555,—he gains the papal chair by hypocrisy and violence. 553 Fifth general council of Constantinople, convoked by order of Justinian, and over which the patriarch of Constantinople presideo, although the bishop of Rome was in the city.
Pelaoius I., 555-559.
John III., 559-572.
Benedict I., 673-577.
Miracles greatly increase. Pelaoius II., 578-590.
Gregory I., the Great, 590-604.
Canon of the mass established.
St. Augustine and forty monks go ai missionaries into England—convert the Anglo-Saxons-St. Augvutinethe first archbishop of Canterbury, 598.
Christianity had been professed in this island by the British, more than 400 years before the arrival of St. Augustine— about sixteen bishops of British Christians are recorded—tbe bishopric of London, founded by king Lucius, 176, was the first.
Rites and superstitions increase-relics qf martyrs sought for and worshipped—litanies addressed to the Virgin come into use, as well as fanciful priestly garments, lights in the day, exorcisms, etc.
502-5 War with Persia.
507 Long walls built to protect Constantinople from the Bulgarians.
512 Tumult at Constantinople—10,000 killed. Justin, 618-627.—Proclus his minister.
Justinian, 527-565. Theodora. Persian war, 529-531.
The schools of Athens suppressed.
532	Sedition occasioned by the disputes of the greens and blues.
533	Justinian's pandects and code of laws—Tribonian.
533-534 Btlitarius overthrows the empire of the VandUih in Africa. St. Sophia ami other churches and palaces founded.
War with Persia, 640—Syria, Armenia, and Colchis completely devastated.
541 Roman consulship abolished. Plague at Constantinople, 542-694—during three months from 5 to 10,000 died daily.
548 LombardsKitWin Pannonia. 550 Greeks settle on the Spaiush coast.
553 Narses overthrows the empire of the Ostrogoths, and settles the affairs of Italy.
Trade with China. SHhworm8introducedfrom China. 559 The Bulgarians advance to the gates of Constantinople—repulsed by Belisarius—he is disgraced, 661—dies 505.
Justin II., 566-578.
Wars with Persia, 671-591.
574 Tiberius associated in the government.
Belisarius.
Procopius.
period
Byzantine
Empire,
New Persia, on Parthian Empire.
Sassanidrs.
B*hramGor( Va-ranes V.) 420,— —persecutes the Christians — war with the Greeks— a truce 422.
Invasion of the Huns, 430-440, who are repelled.
Ykzdejerd {Isde-ge des II.) 438. Huumaz, 456. Firoz, his elder brother, aided by the Huns, invades Persia,and defeats and puts to death Yezdejerd.
Firoz, 457 or 458. killed 484 (Malcolm), or488 (Gibbon)—one of the most celebrated princes of Persia.
Dangerous
Pallas (Balasch), 484-488.
Cobad (Cabades), 488-531.
Noushtrvan (Chosroes), 531-579, the just—be establishes four viziers over his four provinces of Assyria. Media,Persia, and Bactriana.
Tbe fables qf Pil-pay translated into Persian, and the game of chess introduced from India.
War with Justinian —invasion of Syria and capture of Antioch—Belisarius in Syria.
Siege of Petra, 549-651.
Persarmenia, oppressed by the Magi, submits to the Greeks.
Turkish Monarchy
founded in Asia, ab. 545-SSO.
557 The Vvare, driven forward by the Turks. send an embassy to Constantinople; and, about 568, settle in Pannonia, vacated by the Lombards. 669-582 The Turks send embassies to the Greek emperor-treaty between them.
670-000 The Avars flourish under Baian —invade the eastern empire, and spread over Hungary, Poland and Prussia. Tiberius II., 578-582.
Maurice, 582-602.
Tbe empire extended to the Araxes, and almost to the Caspian.
592 War with the Avars.
Conquest ol Arabia Felix
Wars with the Greeks.
HubmazIII.
(Hormisdas)
579-690.
590 Rebellion of Bah-ram,in which Hurmaz is slain—Chosroes, bis son, flees to the Greeks, by whose aid he recovers the throne.
ChosroesII.
(Purveez),
591-628.
400
600
b
d
4 Table ii.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
The Seventh
ROMAN CIVILISATION DISAPPEARS—BRUTE FORCE AND BARBARISM PREDOMINATE.
600
Britain.
Clkowulk, k. of Wessex-597-611, makes We>sex to be feared by all his neighbours, Saxon and British—his sons, Cy-negila and Cuichelm, 611-642, (the first Christian sovereigns of the state), resist Penda, and maintain the superiority of their country.
Spain.
603ETHELFBITH,k. of Northumbria, successful against! Liuva II., 601—assassinated by the Britons—routs Vitteric, 603—assassinated, the Scots at Deg-sastan—he destroys the monastery of Bangor, with its library, rich in historic monuments, ab.
612—killed 617.
625
650
St. Pauls and St. Peter’s (now Westminster Abbey) founded about this time by Sabe/ t, (nephew of Ethelbert, k. of Kent), who introduces Christianity into the kingdom of Essex.
Ethelbert publishes the first code cf laws in Britain.
Eadbald, k. of Kent, 616-640.
Redwald, k. of East-Anglia, 617. Bretwalda IV.—he defeats and kills Ethcl-frith, king of Northumbria, at Retford, and places Edwin, son of Ella, on the throne, 617-683, who becomes
Bretwalda V.—lie embraces Christianity and becomes powerful, but falls in the battle of Hatfield, against Penda, king of Mercia, and Cadwallon, k. of North Wales, 633, who ravage his kingdom—Eanfrith succeeds. Penda, 627-655, a brave and restless warrior, gives to Mercia a formidable preponderance. Oswald,k.ofNorthum- 634 Cadwallon, k. brio, 634-642.	of N. Wules, falls in
Bretwalda VL, battle against Os-a virtuous monarch— wald, the successor propagates Christianity of Eanfrith, after —falls in battle against having been engaged Penda, 642.	in fourteen great
battles and sixty skirmishes.
Cadwaladyr, his son, emigrates during a pestilence to Britany — dies at Rome.
Persecution of the Jews—80,000 are baptised, and many escape into France.
Recared II.,621—three months. Swintila, 621,—deposed 631 —defeats the Basques.
623 The Greeks expelled Spain.
Oswy succeeds and becomes
675
Bretwalda VII., 642-670,—he subdues Mercia and East-Anglia, and introduces Christianity into the former ; but iu the end Northumbria decreases in power—he loses his conquests, and. though his successor, Ecgfkid, < 70, for sonie time maintains a superiority, the kingdom falls a prey to civil broils—a rapid succession of princes, and the invasion of the Danes.
Penda, k. of Mercia, destroys three kings of East-Anglia, 643, but falls in battle against Oswy, 655, at Winwidfield near heeds. Cenwalch, k. of Wessex, 643-672, is driven from his throne by Penda, 645, who keeps possession of Wessex for three years, and though Cenwalch is restored, he loses ground against Wulfhere, Penda's son.
Mercia embraces Christianity.
656-675 Wulfhere, k. of Mercia, shakes off the yoke of Northumbria.
Northumbria declines, and Wessex and Mercia increase in power.
The
Abbey of Whitby, and monastery of Gilling, founded.
Anglo-Saxons
Ecgfrid, 670-685, succeeds Oswy in Northumbria— he defeats the Piets, and, 670, invades Mercia.
Improve
Kingdom of the Visigoths.
Gondemab, 010.
Si8ebebt, 612-621,—successful against the Basques and Greeks.
Ethelbed, k. of Mercia, 676-704, defeats the Cantuarians and ruins their cities, 677.
civilisation
684 Ecgfrid sends an army into Ireland.
Literature flourishes in some of the Irish monasteries.
7 00
Ecgfrid makes an expedition against the
P.cts, in which he is slain.
Alfred, the Wise, 685-728, succeeds him—an amiable monarch, and great encourager of literature.	by the
Caedwalla, 685, the first Christian king of Wessex, subjugates Kent and Sussex—dies at Rome, 688.
Ina, 668-728, succeeds him—a valiant king— legislator, and encourager of learning—dies at Rome, 728, where he founds a Saxon school, to maintain which he grants Peter’s pence—he annexed Essex to his dominions.
Wessex declines to the time of Egbert.
Christianity.
Sisenand, 631-636.
633 Fourth council of Toledo.
The authority of the church and bishops increases.
Chintilla, 636-640.
638 Sixth council—edict against the Jews.
Tulga, 640,—civil broils.
Chindaswind,642-653—he reestablishes peace in his dominions, strengthens the throne, and punishes the nobles who had taken part in the revolutions and conspiracies which for forty years had distracted Spain—he reforms the law of the Visigoths, and causes all his subjects to be amenable to the same code and the same magistrates.
649 Associates his son.
RECE8WIND, 653-672,—he relaxes the authority of the sovereign, who henceforward is simply the first magistrate intrusted with the execution of the laws—all is regulated by the national assemblies, in which
The clergy have great power.
France.
Germany.
I
Italy.
Kingdom of the Franks.
Merovingians:
Thierry, k. Theodebkbt ClotaibeII. of Orfeansmd II. k. of Aus- k.ofSoissons.
Burgundy. trasia.
A succession of civil wars is carried on between these monarchs with varied success; but
613 The Burgundians and Austrasians under Brunehilda desert to Clotaire, who, having put Brunehilda to death, and having all the descendants of Clovis in his power, becomes sole monarch.
Olotaire XX., sole monarch, 613-628, grandson of Clovis,—his power extends over all the Gauls to the Pyrenees—the Saxons and Lombards tributary: capital, Paris.
615 Council at Paris—a national assembly attended by lay lords as well as bishops.
During the fifteen years’ tranquil reign of Clotaire, commerce and the arts of peace improve.
622 Daoobert, son of Clotaire, made k. of Neustria aod Australia.
625 War with the Saxons.
The power of the mayors of the palaces in-creases Iry their being appointed regents over the countries conquered by Clotaire.
Dagobert, 628-638, Chabibekt, his bro-succeeds Clotaire. ther, is appointed k.
Pepin, the elder, is of Aquitaine, and made mayor of the makes Toulouse his Samo, a mer-pslace aud duke of capital—from him chant of Neustria.	are descended the France trad-
dukes of Aquitaine j n g with dies 631.	the Siam, or
63* Dagobert sole monareh.	Vmidi in Jl„
Dagobert gives himself up to all manner ,	■ ' ,
of luxury and debauchery—“ This kiug had , C”Ua’.8 three queens, and ao many coucubinea that I ? ? l^.m . shrink fromthetask of inserting them in this £Ke r1\ < chronicle.”—Fredigaire, quoted by Sis- >oke ol mondi.	H 3	®ar»-under
031 9000 Bulgarian families, to whom Da- “,m tl,ey m. gobert bad exercised hospitality, are mas- TIC*onou> an<* sacred in one night, by his orders, lest his J?“ke,. 4 sheltering them should offend the Avars. tneir km&’ War with the Slavi.
After the death of Dagobert the Icings of France become mere ciphers in the hands of themayors of the palace, who hold not their authority of the king, but are elected by the nobles of the countries they govern.
688 The Kingdom again divided ;
Clovis 11. (five years Sigkbebt(eightyears old) k. of Neustria old)k. of Australia, end Burgundy,668- 636-656.
656.	Pepin, d. 639.
Ega mayor of the	GbimoaLD succeeds
palace.	him as mayor of the „ . ,. ,
palace.	-ff<i</tt//;doke
Clotaire III., 656- Dagobert, 656-679, of Thuringi 670,—alterthedeath — GWmoaW gets him of Sigebert, sole kidnapped into Scot-king till 660.	land aud places his
own son on the throne, who reigns seven months.
Rotharis,633 652.
Defeats the Basques.
Kingdom of the I Greek	
j Lombards.	Exarchs at
|	| Ravenna.
■Agilulf—615.	SmaragdU8, 602-
602 He embraces the Catholic faith.	611, (the second time.)
Successful wars against the Greeks.	
	Lemioius, 611-
	616.
Adaltald, 615.	
Civil broils	Eletjthbbius,
	616-019.
and wars	619 Eleutherius
against the	ia killed in an attempt to as-
Greeks	sume the purple.
prevail during	Isaac, 619-638.
this century.	The maritime cities of
Arivald, 625-	
630.	Italy,
	Plato, 638-649.
nominally subject to the Greek
begin to form into
	Theodorus Cal-
	LOPAS, 648, 649.
Legislation of Rc-	free
tharis and gradual formation of the Italian lan-	republics,
guage.	in which
Invasion of the Slavi, who are repulsed.	was
	preserved
	the
	Olympius, 649-
	652.
Radoald, 652.	Theodorus, re-
Aribert, 653-661.	stored, 652-666.
Wamba {elected), 672-680.
673 Rebellion of Paul.
675 Naval victory over the Arabs, who attempt to invade Spuin —turns monk, and abdicates-dies 683.
Erwig, 680-687.
Egica, 687-701.
Rigid persecution of the Jews.
696 Witiza associated in the government.
Childeric II., 660.
Divisions between the aristocracy and the freemen, or small landholders—the former successful in Austrasia under the Carlovin-gian family—but in Neustria the freemen maintain their independence, attend the national assemblies, and elect Ebroin mayor of the palace of Clotaire.
Thierry III., 670, is placed on the ;throne by Ebroin; but the nobles, in hatred of Ebroin, depose him, and Childeric 11., 670-673, becomes sole monarch.
Thierry is restored, 678.
Dagobert, who returns from Scotland,
674-679.
After six years of war, massacre, and pillage, between the Neustrians and Austrasians, Pepin d’Ueristal gains,
687, The battle of Testry, and becomes, as hereditary duke, the ruler .. of France, under the cipher-king, Thierry.
This victory was the triumph an8> Prisons, of the aristocracy over the Thwringians, monarch and the people— aQd Saxons, it caused the Teutonic lan- while France guage to supersede the La- **. occupied tin— national assemblies w*lh the dis-to be re-established, held *e**sionsof the Clovis III., more regularly, and to ob- “ayors of the 691-695, tain supreme authority— palace, shake ChildebeutIII. unfortunately they were	the Frank-
695-711,— only assemblies of the	yoke,
kings only in nobles. name.
The nations beyond the Rhine regain their independence.
Aquitaine, Burgundy, end Provence become leparate states under their own dukes.
spirit cf liberty that
PERTHABI8, at Milan, and Gonde-BEBTat Pavia, 661.
Grimoald, 662, duke of Benevento, comes to aid Con- afterwards debert,\i\jA kills him and seizes the crown. Petharis flees into Pan-nonia— Grimoald makes conquests in Lower Italy.
Gregory, 666.
Perthabis restored, became
671-686,—protects Wi\fred, archbishop of York.
Cunibert, 677, associated with his father.
diffused
Europe.
686 Cunibert alone.
THEODORU8II.,
678-687.
John Plato, 687-
702.
697 Venice begins to have its Doges —Luc Anafetto the first.
Century.
THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
RISING POWER OF THE POPES.
RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM.
Church History and POPES.
, Literature, Cele-I bkatkd Men, etc.
Sabinian, 604-606.
Boniface III., 606.
The power of the popes Increeses by the concessions of Phocis—the title of] ' iithop Is now first usurped-the i of the east, of WaUt end Scot-tot submit to this usurpation. The WlLneasKB still preserve the simplicity of the Gospel, and acknowledge no dependence upon Some-Spanueim but Koch, who quotes liene, lib. I. c 29. end II. 17, steles that the supremacy of Boat was acknowledged in England In 001 end 607, when the archbishops of Canterbury and York received the pallium from the popes.
Boniface IV., 607 614.
The Anglo-Saxons embrace Christianity—as do also, during this century, the Fries-landers, Westphalians, Thu-ringians, Danes, Swedes, Germans and Franks.
614 Jerusalem taken by the Persians, who kill 90,000 penons and carry off the croas of Christ.
DEODATU8,014or615-617or018. Boniface V., 017-625.
Honorius I., 625-638—he had a taste for splendid cathedrals and processions— much money spent in building churches.
Some few monasteries still continued to be nurseries of the arts, repositories of learning, and, at least in appearance, the abodes of frugality, chastity, and concord.
Africa and Asia, with the churches of Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch, lost to the Christian world by the progress of Mohammedanism.
Severinus, 640.
John IV., 640-642.
Theodorus I., 642-649—the first pope who assumes the title of SOVEREIGN PONTIFF.
Martin I., 649-655—he commands the vow of celibacy to be kept by the clergy.
Rise of the schism between tLe Greek and Roman churches.
Eugenius, 654-657.
Vitalian, 657-672.
He commanded the universal use of the Latin language in di-
Skcundus, historian of the Lombards, d. 615.
Saxon code of laws published in Britain.
Isidobus of Spaii grammarian, philosopher, and historian of the Goths sud Vandals, d. 636.
Th EOPHTL ACTU8, SlMO-catta, historian.
John of Alexandria, sur-named Philopomis, grammarian, and commentator on Aristotle. PaulEginetus, Greek physician.
Code of the Frai.hspub-lished.
Georoe Pisides, historian and poet—d. ab. 641.
Literature, which the continual wan of the barbarians almost entirely extinguished in Europe, begins to be cultivated towards the end of this centunr in Arabia, under the Kha-/£/>—the publication of the Koran fixes the classic language of that country—poetry begins to flourish—medical, astronomical, and other writers are translated from the Greek.
643 Lombard code of laws published by Ro-thauis.
752 Maximus, of Constantinople, theologian.
ADEODATU8, 6/2-676.
Domnus, 676-678.
The popes become independent of the Greek emperon.
Agatho, 678 or 9-682.
680 Sixth general council at Constantinople, called by the empe-ror Constantine, who presided.
Leo II., 682, 683-usurpa the right of investiture.
Benedict II., 684, 685.
John V., 685-686.
Conon, 686-687.
Sergius, 687-701.
667 Ildffonse, of Toledo, historian and moralist.
CaLLixicns, of Heliopolis, Invents and brings to Con' tianlinopU The Gmi Firs, a composition of naptha, pitch, and snlphnr, which once Ignited, could not be extinguished by water—It adhered to wood, and consumed with equal facility a single ship or a fle thrown on the combatants It Insinuated Itself between the joints of their annonr, and destroyed them by a death of torture—from the prows of vessels and the walls of towns It was projected by pistons and tubes with amusing velocity Into the air, where It Immediately caught fire—It approached Its victims In the form of fiery dragons, and at laat fell In a burning shower upon vessels and men—an hour’s fight would cover the sea with this flaming oil, and give it the appearance of a sheet of fire.
691 Julian1, of Toledo, historian and moralist.
697 Bede, the venerable, -b. 673,-d. 735.
Greek Empire.
602 Revolt of the army, which elects Phocas, 602-010, a brutal, lustful tyrant -murder of Maurice and his five sons.
War with Persia, 603-628.
Phocas is put to death by Heraclius, 610-641.
610-22 Twelve years of distress—the Persians conquer the eastern provinces, and the Avars ravage the west—the empire reduced to little more than Constantinople and part of Greece.
617 Ambassadors sent to Chosrocs to request peace, which he refuses unless the Greeks will forsake Christianity and worship the sun.
622-625 Successful expeditions of Heraclius against the Persians, after which he maintains a superiority over them.
626 Vain attempt, of the Persians and Avars combined, upon Constantinople.
Heraclius forms an alliance	of
with the Turks, and, 627, Art*, makes another successful Agriculture, campaign against Persia, and 128 Peace with Persia. Population.
Arabs, or Mussulmans.
The Arabs profess to be descended from Abraham through Ishmael and Hagar; and the affinity of their language proves the Jews and Arabs a kindred race.
Their valour, and the nature of the land they inhabit, preserved it from becoming a province of the Roman empire.
At the beginning of this centnry Arabia became the theatre of events which wrought an entire change in the condition of the nations of the east, and threatened to do the aame for those of the west.
609 Mohammed, a native of Mecca, (bom 569), assnmes the character of a prophet, and endeavours to convert his countrymen from idolatry to a belief in one God—his flight from Mecca, where he is opposed by Abu Sufian, which takes place July 16, 622, forms the era of the Mohammedans, and is called
The Hijra, or Flight, of Mohammed, 622.
He enters Medina, and ia acknowledged as prophet and military sovereign.
623-632 Conquers all Arabia—in his last pilgrimage to the Kaaba, 114,000 Mussulmen march under his banner. Mohammed taught a future state of rewards and punishments ; and made it incumbent on all bis disciples to spread his doctrines by the sword.
Khalifr at Medina:
.) Abu Bekr 632-634, Mohammed's father-in-law, succeeds as Khalif and reigna from the Euphrates and Tigris to the Mediterranean.
633 The Greeks defeated in Syria by the Arabs, 2.) Omar, 634-644. under Khaled, who captures Damascus,	Egypt and part of Syria subdued.
636	gains a victory over
Heraclius on the xerm.uk,	The Koran published,
and drives the Greeks out of Syria.
637	Captures Jerusalem.
The Christians allowed the exercise of their religion—paying tribute. Omar founds a mosque at Jerusalem, which Moslems consider nearly as sacred as Mecca.
Persia.
Dynasty of the Sassanides. Chorroeb II., at
Maduin.
903 Invade* the Greek empire—conquers Syria, 611— Palestine and Jerusalem, 614—E-gypt,6ld, and Asia Minor except the coasts—overrun A-frica.
Splendid conrt of Persia — 960 elephants—the tent & baggage of Clios-roes were borne by 12,000 large, and 8000 lesser camels —his celebrated palace had 40,000 columns of silver, and contained 1000 globes of gold, representing the zodiac and planets. 622 Invasion of Heraclius.
j Tiik Slavi found the kingdom of Servia and Croatia,
Constantine III., (Heracleonas), 641. Constantine II., 641-668.
THB EMPIRE DECLINES
A Saracen army advances to Constantinople—Constans purchases their retreat.
ConstantineIV.,(Pcyona/ua),668-685.
668-675 First siege of Constantinople by the Arabs—the Greek fire saves the city, and obliges the Khalif to purchase, 678, a peace of thirty yean, by a yearly tribute.
627 Victory of Nineveh.
328 Conquest of Madain— Chosroes flees—revolution — he is deposed and murdered by his son
Sirobs, 028, eight months.
Pence with Constantinople.
Twelve In four years, eight monarcha contest the throne, yun Yezdejird, 632-651, the last king.
of
The Arabs attack Persia, and, under
Alexandria onptured by Amru, and its library burnt, 640. j Othman, completely
One sect of Mohammedans, the	’ anarchy.
Shiahs, regard the first three Khalifs
3.	)Othman,644- as usurpers; while another, the Sunis,
655,—build8afleet. consider them legitimate—this schism
still exists—the Persians generally are Shiahs, the Turks and Arabs, Sums.
647	A mru captures Mauritania and nearly all northern A frica.
648	Cyprus captured, and
653 Rhodes—complete destruction of the celebrated colossus.
4.	) Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, 656-660.
Moawiyah and A mru, governors of Syria and Egypt, rebel— From Ali are de-the hostile armies meet at Kufa, where they wage a desul- scended the twelve lory war of 110 days, when Ali is assassinated by a fanatic. Imams of the Per-
5.	) Haren, reigns six months and abdicates.	sian cree<**
Ommeiyades, 656-750,—thirteen Khalifs.
1.) MoawiaH, 601-680,—makes Damascus his capital, and the khalifat hereditary—forms a navy—invade* Sicily —besieges Constantinople.
Alexandria shares with Constantinople the commerce of the Indies.
Grand Cairo founded, 670.
The rapid extension of the religion of Mohammed was mainly owing to the character and clrcnm-Htances of the people to whom it was first addressed, or on whom It was first Imposed. It summoned the brave, hardy, and predatory tribes of Arabia to battle, plunder, and pleasure, and divested death of Its terrors by the assurance that when incurred In religious warfare It was an Incontrovertible title to an eternity of enjoyment The courage thus animated was confirmed by the success which attended the attacks of the Arabs upon the effeminate and 111 protected peoplr *#	—
and Syria; and the confidence of conquest combined with the enthusiasm of religion soldiers of Islam Invincible before they encountered the numerous bnt not over-va Persia and the Greek empire. To the fire-worshippers of Persia, as to the idolaters of Arable, Mo-’	--- “— ----------■--------— J the Imp—'----1
680 kingdom of the Bulgarians
founded between the Danube and the Balkan, lasts till 1018, when it is again reduced to a Greek province.
Justinian II., 685,—he breaks the truce with the Saracens, is defeated, and compelled to relinquish Armenia.
The emperor is deposed and his nose cut off by
Leontius, 695-698, dethroned, and his own nose cut off by Absimarus, who succeeds under the name of
Tiberius, 698,—dethroned 705.
Syria recovered, and 200,000 Saracens
hammedanlsm offered a more rational creed, and tr
ilon which the eword first medewas ex-rpt, the exercise
connection with
of their religion
Constantinople was not---------------- -------,—, .. ,------------ ------------
vernment in both the Greek empire and Persian kingdom was singularly defective, tlonarlee, both civil and military, corrupt, luxurious, and lmbeoile: whilst the rale of the Khalifs was simple and vigorous, and the leaders of their armies distinguished for disinterested seal, judicious energy, and Intrepid valour.
permitted upon payment of a alight tribute, and their political connection with not of a nature to Inspire loyalty or patriotism. The administration of the Go-9 Greek empire and Persian kingdom was singularly defective, and the func-
2.	) Yezid, 680-683.
680 Death of Hossein, son of Ali, who endeavours to obtain the khalifate.
3.	) Moawiah II., 683, reigns six weeks.
4.	) Abdalla, 684,—he is opposed by Merwan I. in Syria.
5.	) Abdulmelek, 686-705,—he discontinues the tribute to the Greeks.
695	A national mint, and silver and gold coins struck.
696	Armenia subdued, and, 697-725, the provinces between the Black and Caspian sea.
698 Carthage rased, and the north coast of Africa completely subjugated.
The Magian religion gives way to the
Mohammedan ,* but a few Ghebers still
the ancient faith in remote proviuces.
600
625
650
675
700
b
d
6 Table iii.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
The Eighth
PREDOMINANCE OF THE FRANKS. CHARLEMAGNE.
700
725
Britain.
Anglo-Saxon Octarchy.
Saxon kings at this time : Alfbed the Wise, Northumbria, 706.—Ini, Wessex and Sussex, abdicates, 728.—Ethblred, In Mercia, 704.—Wihtrbd, in Kent, 725.
Scotland.
As, far back as the time of Constantine, Scot-nit	725 land was inhs
— Alfwold, East-Anglia. — Of- j bited by two fa, in Essex.	■ powerful and
_	,	, , _ . distinct tribes
Geeaint, k. of the Bn- j _the Scots, or tons, in Cornwall de- men 0fthe hills, feated by Ina, 710. j dwelling in the | west, of Irish i origin—and the
E7FxB>lD,T,«-755.V.or^-r/
Mercia succeeds Ceolred ^ the eggt —establ ishes his superiority a„"d midlaild over all the kingdoms from the Humber to the Isle of ^ Th '. ^A^-found. Cropland their mroads^n-
718 Inigils, the brother of Ina, dies; from him are descended Egbert. A fourth century.
descended Egbert, Alfred, etc.
Ina rebuilds Glastonbury Abbey, 718.
750
Palladids, the successor of St. Patrick, the apostle of Ireland, is said to have converted the Scots to Ethelheard, k. of Wes- Christianity ab. sex, 728-741,—he invades 460-Devonshire and Cornwall, \ but is defeated in several Upon the Sax-battles by the Britons, un- 071 *nva®>on Ida der Rodri Molwynawe.	8ub(lue‘l	the
March, Teviot-Eadbert, k. of Northum- dale as high as bria, 738-757,—after his Melrose,	and
death this kingdom falls a the three Lo-prey to civil broils to the thians; and of time of Egbert.	; these five pro-
...	vinces the Sax-
/37 Ethelbald, k. of Mer-
Spain.
Kingdom of the Visigoths,
Witizia, 700,—he is driven from the throne for his bad government and cruelty, by Roderic, ab. 710, who is elected in his stead.	Much
The two sons of Witizia conspire with count Julian obscurity in to replace their father on the throne—they call in the	history of
aid of the Arabs from Africa — Tarik lands at Gibraltar. Ibis period. April 30, 711, gains a decisive victory at Xeres, Nov. 11,712, in which Boderlc, the last of the Ooths, is killed, with whom ends the Gothic monarchy of Spain.
713, 714 Tarikwai Musa complete the conquest of Spain, w hich is ruled by governors appointed by the kbalifs.
Christians.
The Christians maintain them- The Visigoths preserve selves in the Astu- theirfreedom-theirpro-rias and Navarre, perty,heavily taxed,their religion, and language.
The Asturias.
Pelayo, 718-737, ,lfl «_____
defeats the Arabs,	ag TT7
7io	11 killed in a great bat-
A: kimrdrfm - *'e at Toulouse, with the ens his lungdom.	under pjudes>
duke of Aquitaine, in which 360,000 Saracens are said to have been slain, 721.
France.
Germany.
- Kingdom of the Franks.
Numerous Sclavonian republics exist in Bohemia, the most con-
Childebert III.,—711.	siderable of
which was in the province
tria.	Anatrasia.	°f..
Dagobert111.,711-715. Pepin d’Hkris- Ah,8» by war«
tal mayor of
, J .u	alliance, un-
|he palace—the ite8theothe„ true founder of the Carlovin- t0 ,t8eIf-gian dynasty.
Charles Martel, 715-741, establishes himself as mayor of the palace, and is chosen duke of Austrasia—he is complete master of the French monarchy.
Chilperic II., 715-720.	716Radbold
duke of the Prisons, defeats Charles.
Kingdom of i Greek Ex-the	abchs at
Lombards. | Ravenna. 700 Luit-bert, eight months,then Ragimbert.
Arimbert Theophylact, H. 701-712.	702-710.
Italy.
(709 Paulupius Anabestus, doge of Venice.)
John Rizo-COPU8, 710. Ansbband, Eutychius, 712, three	711,—recall-
months.	ed, 713.
LuiTBRAND, SCH()LA8T1CUS, 712-744—a 713-726. great and virtuous prince.
T™B»Tlv.,J2°-737,-CAarfc»,i"go. m P,Ilns.
LAU
720-729	The	Arabs	invade	France, but	““"“3
are several times defeated and driven back r' BU8SA , , by Eudet,	duke of Aquitaine.	'
his	family
rules till 1306.
Favila, his son, 737-739.
The Arabs take Narbonne, 721.
725-728
731	The Arabs under Abderrahman, invade France, and Charles subpenetrate as far as Sens, but	dues the Ra-
732	Charles Martel gains the decisive victory various, Sua-of Tours, which saves the liberties and reli- bians,Saxons,
gion of Europe.
and Prisons.
cia conqwnNorthumbria j the possession, —738 invades Wales, but though not with-is driven back with great loss by the Britons—he repeats the invasion with more success in 743.
ons maintained Alfonso, the Ca- 737 Lose Narbonne.
Cuthred, 741-754,—succeeds Ethelheard in Wessex.
out some severe contests with the Piets, the most numerous and powerful people of Scotland. Edwin, between 617-633, founded the castle called after him Edwin's- burgh,
Struggle between Wessex
and Mercia—Cuthred, by ________
the victory of Burford, 752,1 nov Edinburgh. saves his country from de- j pendence, and lays the ; 1“ 685 a check
foundation of that predominance which ends in the subjection of the whole island.
Cynewulf, 755-784, k. of Wessex.
Offa, k. of Mercia, 755-794, overthrows the armies of Sussex, Kent, Wessex, and the British state of Powis—gains a victory at Otford, 774, which brings Kent under his authority— he founds the Abbey of Bath and of St. Albans—
| corresponds with Charlemagne.
7 7 5
800
I
Offa's dyke, founded to prevent the marauding incursions of the Welch.
787 First recorded inroad of the Danes—they Blunder LindesfemeexA Were-mouth.
792 Offa, k. of Mercia, inhumanly murders his son-in-law, Ethelbert, on the day of his nuptials, and annexes East-Anglia to his dominions—as an atonement for this crime, he imposes a tax of one penny on each family, to be paid annually to the Roman see— origin of Feter-pence.
given to the encroachment of the Saxons by the defeat of Ecgfrid at the battle of Drum-nehtan, in which himself and most of his troops were slain.
Nkctan, or Naiton, is mentioned as king of the Piets, ab. “^9.
[A long list of kings of Scotland, beginning
tholic, 739-757,
(elected).
Feuds among the
Mohammedan chiefs;
713THEODOMiRin and Spain subjected Murcia, is succeeded by Atha- the most horrid ca-NAGiLD-tbis kingdom ends ab. 755. lamities—many cities,
Alfonso extends besides towns and villas kingdom by the conquest of Gali- lages, disappear for da, Leon,ar.dCas-
732-752 Conquest of Septimania—the inhabitants preserve their liberties by treaty, whence the privileges of Languedoc.
735 On the death of Eudes, Charles adds Aquitaine to his dominions, and. 736, grants it as a fiefto Hunald, son of Eudes, who does homage for it to him and his two sons without mention of Thierry, j 737 Narbonne wrested from the Arabs.
741 Two Nuncios, the first that visit France, bring the keys of St. Peter’s sepulchre, and various presents, to Charles, from Pope Gregory III., who requests his DBa'ce® a 8UC* aid against the Lombards.	cessful cam- He again invades the exar-
Carloman and Pepin the Short. 741; Pa>Ka against • -	■ •	* -
Carloman takes the cowl 746, when * “
Pepin becomes sole monarch.
as the founder of the Kingdom of the peninsula. Leon.
Ommiyadan Kings, 766-1031, at Cordova-
1.) Adderraiiman, 75 5 -787 or 8, wrests Spain
7G0D,fe«t,lb,Mo- 5»“ ^«>«
baianied.il general SHamiM-tUMAn
'if W'd'.X'rL.
bebuilds Oei'edn.
Most of these kings sides these there were are elected, but al- six Walls over the chief , .	KaMs out of the cities. These Walls with
before the birth I royal family. their vizers, the Kadis of Christ, has Aurelio,768-774. (judges ),_and the Mexe-Silo, 774-783. ™ars t (councillors),
Kings at Oviedo.
Fruei.aI., his son, 757-768.
743-745
Carloman
the Germans —defeats The-
tile, andlisregarded ever from the face of 752 Childeric III. who had been crowned odoric, duke Hildebrand, 744, deposed
Luilbrand takes advantage of the civil broils in.Italy, captures Ravenna and several cities from the pope.
Paul, 727,— he is ordered by Leo the Isaurian, to procure tbe assassination of Gregory II., for his zealous attachment to image-worship ; but the Romans fly to arms in defence of their pastor. Paul goes to Ravenna, where he is as badly received, and killed in a tumult, 728. Eutychius, the second time, 728.
chate—takes several cities, and threatens Rome—but cedes them to Zachary.
742, is compelled by Pepin to retire to a of the Saxons, by the nation, who elect cloister, and this is	RaCHIS, 744, duke of Friuli,
The end of the Merovingian dynasty. 748-749	—abdicates 749.
Pepmdefeats Ustolphe, 749-756. the Saxons” ..	.. -
Carlovingian Dynasty.
been compiled, but with no authority beyond that of uncertain legends, and ' the traditions of the Scottish bards.]
Maubegato, 783-	* P‘"
The first palm tree planted in Spain. Several revolts.
usurps the throne, which Al-phonso, the rightful heir, does not
contend for.	Abderrahman encourages lite-
rature <t founds many schools.
Yearly tribute of 100 beautiful maidens to the Arabs.
Burmudo I., 788-
752 He defeats the Greek exarchs, and demands a tribute from Rome—Eutychius flees.
End of the Greek Exar-
. _	aud Bavari-
1.) Pepin the Short, 752-768, conse- am, and, 752, crated king in a general assembly of tbe obliges the nation, at Soissons—he greatly enriched former to pay the clergy—was the first who took the him a yearly title “ by the grace of God,” and called tribute of 300 bishops to the national assemblies.	horses.
754-756 Pepin makes two expeditions into Italy at the request of STEPHEN-defeats
✓X?	“d Q—^opo"the
Charlemagne, 768-814, and Carloman, —the former one of the greatest monarchs that ever lived, becomes sole ruler upon the death of Carloman, 771.
772-803,
Thirty yean' struggle with the
Didier, 756, the last king, quarrels with Pope Adrian, 772, at whose request Charlemagne crosses the Great St. Bernard from Geneva, takes Pavia, dethrones Didier, and thus, 774,
Ends the Kingdom of the Lombards.
continual
sti'uggle
Saxons on one side,
and with the Scoto-Iinsh
j 791 (elected).
! 7 791 Victory over ! Hashem—inwhich 60,000 Moors are slain.
2) Hashem, the Just, 787 or 8-796.
He proclaimed the Aljihed, A L,r	or holy mar, against the Chris-
ADUlcatesin favour tlaus, but was unsuccessful, of
Ai.phonso II., the Chaste, 791-842.
He defeats and expels the Arabs, who invade his dominions, and from this time may be dated the real
independence 3.) AlhaKEM, 796-821. of the Christians,
which bad lasted 206 years.
Charlemagne founds the second empire of the West.
777 Expedition against the Saxons-Champ deMai utPaderborn-he subdues the Saxons, and eausea 4500of them to be beheaded in one day,
77ft	. a ,, , ,	,	—' M>d transplants 10,000 into
ssrterssttfsfcss	jg-t—
of Eonoesvalles.	____ Haly'
Conquest of the Spanish Marche.
r	« v, ,	,	Witikind, who had repeatedly induced the
In thw campaign the FranA* suffered Saxons to revolt, compelled to embrace severely from the Arab light horse; and Christianity.	^
this led them almost immediately to	1
adopt the method of fighting on horse- Charlemagne
^r^iz£’n\ivalryt\ so X	766 ABBI018’ d»ke Of Be-
l uv Ctt?7 “ld	nevento, submite to Charle-
learned men, and the ambition of found-	magne, aud holds his duchy
ing learned institutions, were partly eomp.u as a fief.	7
caught from the Arabs—the system of P propagating Christianity by the sword more decidedly so.	to emtaaee
791-3 Campaign against the Avars or Huns, from Ravensburg— Charlemagne attempts to unite the Rhine and Danube by a canal.
/94 Synod at Frankfort: the clergy of the empire convoked by Charlemagne.
ChrimtUnltr.
798 Embassy of Harun al Rachid.
Charlemagne restores Leo, and is crowned by him emperor of the West at Some.
Century.
THE HISTORY OF TIIE MIDDLE AGES.
7
BRILLIANT PERIOD OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE—HARUN AL RASHID.
Church History and popes.	Literature, Celebrated 1 Men, etc.
John VI.. 701-705.	| The west had never been so abso-!
704 The first province given to the lutely without an historian as during pope.
John VII., 705-707.
Sisinnius, 708, twenty days.
Constantine, 708-715.
Christianity greatly extended among the German and north- Aldhelme, or Adlemus, Latin poet,
4»m nntinni • Kail’ olmnat o«taw.	«
Scandinavia.
able in the eighth cen-
mte.y witnout an nistonan as aunng t foritonume* the first half of this century-barbar-^ who mIed on ism, every where reigned, and non-and it8 8ea ki who archs, nobles, and people seemed ut- iwarmed QQ thc £ean> terly regardless of transmitting any knowledge of their existence to posterity.
era nations; but almost exterminated in Africa and the east by the progress of Mohammedanism.
Increasing
711 Custom of kissing the pope’s foot introduced.
Gbegoby II., 715-731.
spiritual
726 The 120 years’ strife respecting image worship begins through the edict of Leo—it ends 842, by the legal permission of this idolatry.
Gbegoby El., 731-741.
Wilibrod, an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the Gospel to the Frisons—d. 739.
ZaCHaBY, 741-752.
He dethrones Childeric, king of France, by a papal decree.
744 Abbey of Fulda founded.
zrorway
in the eighth century contained a hardy population, divided into numerous so-Art of making paper brought from vereignties, called Fylki,
Samarcand by the Arabs.
GEOEGE'SYNCELLUS,a Greek chrono-logist.
Bede, the Venerable, 673-735, — grammarian, philosopher, torian, and theologian.
Stephen IT., 752, four davs. Stephen III., 762-757. 754 He journeys to Pepin to implore his protection.
period
Winifred, of Essex, a Saxon monk, 0 • afterward, Boniface. th. gre...po,tle
b). ,b, Ww. ILEESSTiS
Egbebt, archbishop of York. eighth century, had reduced these to five. This number was further decreased ; and on their first invasion of England there was only one king
748 Vi EG I LIUS, a priest, is condemned ^ over Jutland, and as a heretic for believing in the ex- other over the isles, istence of antipodes.
Letters of exchange invented by the Lombards,
Harold HABFBAGBE.af-
GREEK Empire.
Khalifat.
Philippics,
711-713.
707 Victory of Catibah over the Turks beyond the Jihon—con-questof Bokhara	Samar cand.
707 Expedition into India.
Anastasius II.,
713,—dethroned 711-714 Conquest of £
716.
I er a long struggle, unites 7 j g these into one monarchy.
Sweden
in the eighth century contained a numerous, warlike, and hospitable population, divided into many puny kingdoms, of which Upsal was the chief, and to which the rest were tributary. IvabVidfame, the little potentate of Scania, conquers this kingdom, which continues to increase in its power and preponderance.
Leo III., the I-saurian, 718-741.
Tile Arabs Invent Constantinople, by land with 120,000 men, and by sea with 1800 Hbips—the city la saved by the Greek Are—the Arab fleet I totally destroyed^nd the army nearly so.
726 Edict forbidding image worship, which leads to the loss of nearly all the Greek posses- j sions in Italy,
Images destroyed, 73G.
European
756 Donation of St. Peters patri- L.» _, , .	. „
mony to the popes by PepiZand |757 The first “P" ,n France' afterwards by Charlemagne—the JoHN 0F Damascus, a founder of the
PAUL?lV57t767°ral*OTereigIlt7, scho,“tic Philos°Phy* 760-
Constantine, 767, deposed. Stephen IV., 768-772.
lay
769 Council of Laleran. Adrian I., 772-795.
779 Imposition of Tithes enforced by Charlemagne for the support of bishops, the clergy, churches and schools, and the poor.
785 Forcible conversion of the Saxons by Charlemagne.
787 Seventh general council, or second of Nice.
universal
793 Foundation of schools in monasteries and cathedrals by Charlemagne—the Gregorian chant, and organs brought into use in France.
Leo HI., 795-816.
800 The pope finally separates from the eastern empire, and becomes supreme bishop of the western— Charlemagne protector of western Christendom.
Fbedeoaibe, who continued the history of Gregory of Tours.
The Abbassides encourage lite- t rature and science—schools of
Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria, of Fez and Cordova— the works of the Greek philosophers, physicians, and mathematicians, translated into Arabic— rise of chemistry—geography and other sciences advanced.
A private doctor refused the invitation of the sultan of Bokhara, because the carriage of his books would have required 400 camels— the royal llbiary of the Fatimitu consisted of 100,000 Mss.—that at Cordova la said to have
seventy public libraries were opened In Spain.
The age of Arabian learning lasted 600 years —it was coeval with the darkest period of Europe; hut as the sun of science arose in the western hemisphere, it declined In the
The Sea kings End Viklngr.
Ommyade Khalifa at Damascus.
6.) Walid I., 705-716.'
Justinian II.,—:
restored 705-711. 705-707 Musa reduces the Berbers in Africa, and subdnes Mauritania and tlie whole northern coast.
The honseof Ommiyah is held in abhorrence by the Mohammedans of the Shiah sect, who consider the descendants of the prophets, as better entitled to his throne and pulpit. The Fatimites, who have the prior claim, lack the talents and courage to enforce it; but the Abbassides, descended from the prophet’s uncle, Abbas, were prudent, united, and possessed numerous and power-Armenia and the Khozens of the ful partisans, particu-r""1,00 '7on larly in Persia.
THE0D03IU8IIL,
7.) Soliman, 715-717.
8.) Omab II., 717-720.
9.) Yezid II., 720-724.
10.) Hashem, 724-743.
Caucasus, subdued 722-729.
CON8TANTINEV., Copronymus,7i\ -775.
P 746 Defeats the
Arabs-Rhodes, Cyprus, and Antioch captured
754 Council of
Constantinople.
These were sovereigns who, with no wealth but their ships, no subjects but their crews, and no hope but their swords, swarmed upon the ocean, plundered every district they could approach, and for above two hundred years spread blood and misery over all the na-j tions of Europe. Never to sleep under a smoky roof, nor to drink a cheerful cup over a hearth, were the boasts of these pirates. All their habits, all their feelings and associations, were ferocious; they regarded piracy and| plunder aa the most m Great victo honourable methodof ac-, over the m l qiuring nches, raw flesh n-a„, and blood as a delicacy, Leo jv 775. tears and mourning as ur - —~ manly, and to wrench the infant from its mother’s
i	breast, and totosB it from
contained 600,000 volumes. Thla capital,with:	’	,, .
the neighbouring towns of Malaga. Almeba,\0lae another On their and Murcia, gave birth to 800 writers; and lances WAS with them a
sport or exercise.
They only valued peaceful society as a rich harvest easy to be pillaged ; knew no glory but iu the destruction of their fel- . low-creatures; and when ’
Schools of grammar, arithmetic, and all the known sciences, founded in religious houses by Charlemagne.
The first elephant seen in France, sent aa a present to Charlemagne by Harun al Rashid.
Charlemagne the restorer of letters —he established a school in his palace, gathered about him the learned of every country, and thus laid the foundation of the University of Paris, the mother of all the academies of the west—he founded also, about 800, universities at Pavia and Bologna.
Alcuin, of York, a scholar of Bede's, resides at Tours—forma schools—bis Opera—d. 804—he was patronised by Charlemagne, and was considered the moat learned man of hia times. Paul Wahefbedub, Diaconus, the historian,—d. 801.
780.
Conspiracy of Nicephorus and his brothers.
Thiscountry becomes the theatre of a struggle between the 732 Charles MartelchccVnihccon- Greens, or Ommiya-quests of the Arabs in the west, des, and the Blacks.
or Abbassides. The latter make head in Khorasan under the brothers Ibrahim and
11.	) Wmjd II, 743.744-1,1, AUl-Allm, ,nd re-
debaucheries cause a revolt, in -	,	,	, ,
which he is .lain by	fu8e to “knowledge
Mebvan. The latter,
12.	) Yezid III., 744, sixmonths. after being defeated on
13.	) Ibrahim, 744,—abdicates ‘he banks of the Zab,
after reigning three months in fa- ®ee8 *D^°	whi-
vour of	.................
14.) Mebvan II., 744-750.
tber he is followed by Abdallah, and, in another battle on the banks of the Nile, is defeated and slain.
1.	) Abul-Abbas, 750-754,— All the Ommiyades
the fourth in descent from Abbas, are now put to death, the uncle of Mohammed.	except Abderrahman,
2.	) Abuzafeb-Almansub, or the Victorious, 754-775.
and
who escapes founds the
dynasty of the Ommiy a des in Sp a i n,
which is lost to the Khalifat, 755.
762 Destroys the cities of Clesiphon and Selucis, and founds Bagdad, which becomes the seat of the Kbalifs, the centre of commerce, and rises to great opulence and splendour.
Alamansur left behind him, after his wars and buildings, about thirty millions sterling.
Flourish lug period of
3.) Mohammed Mehid, 775-785.
Such was the magnificence of the khalifa at this epoch, that this prince expended 666 millions of gold crowns in a pilgrimage to Mecca.
Arabian Astronomy,
Constantine VI., 780-797, with his
Poetry, Philosophy,
780 Harun al Rashid presses as far as Nicomedia, on the sea of Marmora, and compels the empress Irene to pay him a yearly tribute of 70,000 dinars of gold.
they invaded a country it was not merely to plunder, but to desolate its agriculture, and to murder or make slaves of its inhabitants.
In 787 they begin their attacks, on England— and about 800 begin to molest the Franks.
empress Irene, as guardian.
787 Irene restores the worship of images.
790 The emperor reigns alone.
The exarchate of Ravenna lost.
Irene alone, after killing her son, 797-802.
The Saracens ravage Thrace.
4.) Musa al Hadi, 785-78f
Architecture, and 6.) Harun al Baahid, (Aaron the Sage), 786-809, mosque with-
he was the great friend and patron of learning—waa always by learned men, and never built a mosqui
surrounded out attaching a school to it.
genar&l Literature.
Decline of the Khal if a t.
The luxury of the khalifa begin* to relax the forces of the empire—the revenue, Instead of being devoted to the extension of the dominion and religion of Mohammed, is squandered in the vices and extravagances of the court. The martial spirit and stern enthusiasm of the Moslem soldier Is softened by ease and prosperity—the passion for war, and the heavenly
wnn IT __________, paradise to which It opened the gates, cools In
7U9 Harun sends an the enjoyment of domestic life, and the pomps embassy to Charle- and pleasures of the palace. The empire In
______J	/j- the next century la tom and weakened by
magne among ine numerous divisions; but Its fatal disease is the presents IS an hy- decline of the free-born and martini virtues of rlmtilio nlnrh	the desert—it receives its death-blow by the
arauuc cioch.	employment of the hardy but hireling Turk.
7 00
725
“50
775
800
a
b
d
8 Table iv.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
The Ninth
ALFRED THE GREAT. EUROPE BROKEN INTO NUMEROUS STATES, 841—1073.
Britain.
Spain.
J_
Empire of Charlemagne.
800
825
850
875
I Anglo-Saxon Octarchy,	.------:------
|	Anglo-Saxon kings at this time:	■	_	.	.
Eadhbht, In Kent — EarliWULp, In Northumbria I	Continual
1 — Kbnwulv, In Mercia — Sigkbbb, In Essex.—	w_
Eubeut, In Wessex, etc.; but the powers of ; B,,rue5le8 oe*
tween the
Mohammed ana- Christiana.
Alhakem,—822. Alfonso the his
Wessex, Northumbria, and Mercia ! greatly predominate.
Scots till the marriage of Ungaria, sister of
813 He defeats the Britons in the west. ; Ungus, king
Egbert, k. of Wessex,[800-836, the Inst scion of the house of Cedric, and true founder of the English monarchy—educated in the court of Charlemagne. j
The tyranny | of Yussufocca-Picts and isions insurree-
in Toledo.
800 Charlemagne king of the Pranks and emperor of the west-is empire extended from the Ebro and Tiber in the mind necessary to fo outb, to the Elbe and Eyder ip the north—it included litician-born in the ^	~	, barlsm and lanoran
of the Piets,
Kenwulf, the able and powerful king of; with Mercia, d. 819, and the distractions! Aycha IV. which follow, leave this kingdom a prey! ,.	„ , ’
to Egbert.	I king of the
Scots.
828 BEORNWULF, k. of Mercia, makes! war on Egbert, who defeats him at Wil- i ton—subdues Kent and Essex—incites j the East-Anglians to revolt against)
Mercia, and when he finds the military I prowess of that country destroyed, he in-j vades it, 825, and defeats Wiolaf, it* new king, who submits, 827, to become his vassal and tributary.
827 He invades Northumbria, whose king, EaNKEL), submits to him, and
Egbert increased the 128 Subjugates power of the monarch, Wa les as far as and made all the A nglo-Anglesea. Saxon kingdoms subordinate to his own ; but he assumed no higher title than king of the west Saxons.
The Danes nr Nirlhmm ravage the Isle of Sheppey, 832-defcat Egbert in Dorset, 833—but he gain:- a great victory over them, 836, aud compels them to retreat to their ships.
Ethelwolf, 836-856, famed for his bounty to the church, whose possessions he exempts from the service of the state.
Alstan, his intelligent, powerful, and warlike minister.
Alfred the Great born, 849.
Insurrections i Cordova,807 —numerousin-surgentsareex-iled, a body of whom capture Crete, 823, and found Candia.
Abdehbah-man II., 822-852-he crushes the rebellion of his great-uncle, Abdallah.
Alpine, 833-836,their son, succeeds as k. of&ofs.Upon his death the Pictish throne ii claimed hy Kenneth, 836-859, the son and successor of Alpine.
842 WBtD, the last king of the Piets, is slain, and the nation subdued by Kenneth.
Science
and
literature encouraged by the Khalif.
Revolts in Merida aud Toledo.
Persecution of the Christians.
851 The Danes winter in the Isle of,
Thanet, but, 852, are defeated with great! tfTafe ,8e ““ slaughter by Elhelwulf.	paled the whole	.
856 Revolt of Wessex, AlstanunA Ethel- of ^ Mohammed 1., 5aWat the head—Ethelwulf'w deposed.
Ethelbald, 856-860.
ETH ELBERT.
Ramiro I.,842 -850, (elected) —he suppresses several rebellions — defeats the sea kings; as he is also said to have done the Saracens.
844 Irruption of tho sea kings.
OrdonoL, 850
In Charlemagne was united the talents of the warrior, the geniue or the legislator, and the largeness of —	-------V> form a great po-
Chaste -842 •outh, to the Elbe and Eyder iD the north—it included Jiucian-norn m the midst of bar. \enaste}>	x	barlsm and Ignorance, he poured
, all France, Germany, bpatn	to	the	Ebro,	Italy	to	WUnd him a stream of light aud of
! Benevento, several isles of the	Mediterranean, and	the	Kl«ry. Hie laws (capitularies) cor.
! unit., Mrflnn T>_______■	reeled a vast number of abuses, and
greater portion of Pannonta.	gave new ldeM of juaUce; but the
806 Charlemagne divides the empire between his three -^^Ttstm^f money*ami'crnieJ : sons, two of whom die, 810-811.	barbarities, were unfortunately still
808 First descent of the Normans upon France—prepa- Bl'ffered t0 remain. He created new
'	________. Qi\a on	officers, called missi domtmci. who
rations against them, 809-811.	were charged to visit every country
Eamburgh founded, once in three months, to examine 813 National ammbl, *-<*-*«* co-ruler-CTaW,.
magne dies there, Jan. 28, 814.	fully their duties: to superintend
Louis, the Pious, 814-840—crowned emperor at Bheims, JSe that equal justice waVidminis* 816, by Pope Stephen IV.	tered to all without dletinctlon. His
f r	heerban and perpetual wars almost
817 Louis divides the empire between his three sons, and, entirely destroyed the middle class -1, . fourth, LMaire, n ,seated m th. empire.	iSSK'.S.^'SS.S:
Bebshabd, king of Italy, Is offended—assembles troops—sub- and an immense mass of slaves.—In mlts to Louis, and Is shamefully put to death.	the grants of Charlemagne be in-
variably bestows lands “ with all the
820 Invasion of the Normans.	Inhabitants,houses,slaves,meadows,
moveables and immovables.”
THE PALL OP THE EHPIRE may be attributed, 1st. To the Incapacity of Its rulers: the descendants of Charlemagne mere imbecile wretchi-a, who neither excited interest nor affection, itfly. To the extinction, under Louis and Charles, of the race of freemen, already exhausted by Charlemagne'swan. 8dly. To the intolerable oppressions of the nobles, which depopulated the provinces.—The most dreadful disorders ensue—the interior is torn by continual civil ware- Saracena. Bulgarians, and Northmen cruelly ravage the frontiers-a frightful traffic iu slaves is secretly carried on: the nobles, both ecclesiastical aud secular, making no scruple, when presned for money, to sell the children of their serfs to the Mohammedans, kuowiug that these purchase them to convert them to Moelemism.
829 The Saracens settle in Calabria—chief seat Bari.
83(, Rebellion of Louis's three sens, and succession of quarrels between them till Louis's death—Field of lies At Alsave, 833—Louis is deposed, but soon restored.
Tho Normans pillage Marseilles, 838 ; Rnutn, 8-11 ; Paris, 845 ; Bourdeaux, 848. Two hundred and tifty Danish vessels arrive, 851, and ascend the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Seine—they every where coin lull the greatest havoc—the nobles, engaged in private warfare and the extension of their own power, disregard the affairs of the empire, and leave it and the people a prey to these aud other barbarians ; the cities are left without defence ; the rural population hunted like beasts by the Saracens aud Normans, and have do heart to till and sow lauds they have no hopes of reaping ; while almost every year brings with It a pestilence or famine.
Many fiefs hereditary, and several dukedoms established.
Louis dies, 840—his sona quarrel respecting the division of the empire.
Battle of Fontenai between Lothaire, Charles, and Louis—Louis is defeated.
this may be an) 852-886. exaggeration;but 1 It Is certain that after his victory j over Wrad. no
885 Radnor Iadbrog, the Danish sea king, Is Scottish history made prisoner and put to death by Ella, to re- of Pictish kings
900
20,000 warriors, led by the sons of Ladbrog, defeat the Northumbrians and subdued that kingdom, 667—they ravage Nottingham and Lincolnshire, burn the churches and monaster!
ting the Inmates
EtHELHED, 866- Bword without distinction of 071	age or sex,—language
* •	not describe their devi
tlons : It can only re,__
the words plunder, murder, rape, famine, and dlatreaa—670 they overrun Mercia and East-Anglia, and Invade Wessex— various battles are fought between them end the Saxons—they are routed near Wallingford by Ethelred and Alfred, but the former Is soon after mortally wounded at Merton, 871.
Alfred the Great, 871-900 or 901.
First seven years imprudent.
The Northmen no longer fight for plunder and fame, but for the lasting possession of the country.
Alfreds troops ere defeated In the ninth pitched battle, fought In the year of his accession, and he makes peace with them.
874 The Danes conquer Mercia, and possess all the islands except Wessex.
878 They again attack Alfred-be gains a naval victory, and buys a second peace.
877 He builds large vessels snd defeats the Danes at sea-new swarms arrive, and Alfred Is compelled to become a fugitive, and conceals himself In the Isle of Ethelney, 878. He fortifies his retreat, gathers together his friends, attacks the Danes, and gains the decisive
Battle of Ethondune, 878.
The Danes surrender, give hostages, are baptised with Oulhrum their chief, and allowed to settle in East-Anglia.
The reign of Alfred, from his restoration, is wise and prosperous.
During fifteen years of tranquillity Alfred improve* the army and navy, creates a militia and builds fortresses, reforms and purifie* the courts of justice, and encourages learning and the art*.
808 The Danes, under Bastings, Invade angutna, but after a three yeare’ contest ere driven from the Island.
? Division of England into shires, hundreds, and tithings.
T Trial bp Jury.
people. Even their very language is lost, and what dialect they spoke remains a subject of doubt
Donald III., 859, who succeeded by Constantine, killed in repelling an invasion of the Danes, ab. 873.
Aodh,Eocha and Grig, succeed him, reigning conjointly ;
and about
892 Donald IV.
i—be fortifies the frontier cities a-gainst the Saracens, whom
Unsuccessful *e, repnMly th defeats.
At bis death the wholecoun-try, from the Bay of Biscay to Salamanca, tranquilly submitted to his authority.
against
Christians.
Partition of the Carlovingian empire at Verdun, 843, when
properly begins the history of France, Germany, and Italy, as separate states.
Italy.
France.
Germany.
Lothaire,emperor,843-855 Charles the Bald, 843-887 Louis the German, 843-867 —obtains Italy and Lot/ta- —obtains France; bound-1 —obtains Germany to the ringia, or Lorraine.	nries: the Meuse, SnoneA Rhine,	with Mayence,
Rhone, Scheldt, and Ebro. | Spires, and Worms.
Powerful dukes establish vast and wealthy governments, which they render almost hereditary.
848 The Venetian fleet totally destroyed by the Saracens, at Crotona.
The power of the monarohs declines, and the nobles become independent.
The empire, by the almost universal system of division and subdivision, is broken up into an immense number of petty states.
Charles was supported against his two brothers by the people of Gaulish and Roman descent, who hated the Germans, or bai banana. The German language here gave place to the corrupted Latin or Romance, which has since been purified Into the modern
843 The king Ib compelled to pro-1 mlse that he will deprive no one of his office except according to I
Rebellion of Omar, 860-
Klngdom of Navarro
founded by GabciaXime nks, ab. 858.
Alfonso HI., 866-010—suppresses several
895 Kingdom divided. Louis II., emperor—obtains Italy and Rhatia, till 875. Charles,Provence, till 863, when it is divided. Lothaibe II.,899, LorratW.
law and Justice, and to continue to every order Its privileges—861 to transect no state affairs without the consent of the nobles—854 to declare for himself and successors, that the nobles had the right, whenever their demands and decrees should be unjust, to make common cause against them.
Ab. 850 Dukes of Saxony and Thuringia.
Increases
Ariatoeratlcal feudal system The nobility, under the weak successors of Charlemagne, make their lands, and, what la of more Importance, their offices end titles, their dukedoms aud earl-dome, hereditary. The ancient republican governments, with their fiefs and benefices, are supplanted by the new feudal system, of which, Inheritance and an hereditary nobility are eeaentlal features. The nobility and clergy become now the predominating powers in the state—the royal authority sinks
to nothing, and the great body of free yeont--*-	—— iV~’-	*-	----
barons, and bold them as dependent fiefs, N this period the tang and people are nothing— t h
Lorraine divided between Germany and France.
|	661 Robert, great grandfather of Hugo Capet, Duke of Veustria.
875 Charles the Bald becomes emperor and k. of Italy.
877 Cabloman k. of Italy. ,877 Edict of Xiersi: that
by a
succession of
Calib succeed* his father, O-mar-continues the rebellion —occupies To-ledo. He attacks Alfonso with 60,000 men, but is defeated with great slaughter.
Almondhir,
Abdalla, 889-912—a mild, just, and enlightened ruler.
Mohamme-
dans.
879 Charles the Fat, king duchies, earldoms, and all of Italy—881 emperor.	fiefs shall be hereditary.
—------------—_ 'Louis II., the Stammerer,
Boson founds the | 877-879.
taugdom °f Bm-.l^js in 879-882, and
kwidy. Cts-jurane, Cabloman, 884.
W7y-	Charles the Fat, 884-887,
878 Kingdom divided. Charles the Fat obtains Suabia and Alsace till 887. LOUI8 the Younger, Saxony and Thuringia till 882. Cabloman, Bavaria, etc., till 879—become* king of Italy, 877.
All Lorraine ceded to Germany.
884 Oharlea the Fat re-unites the monarchy of the Franks,
Bebenqer I.,dukeofJH«Z», 885 Paris for two years ^88.	j besieged by the Normans
.	.	. .	| —Eudes, son of Robert,
Anarchy and civil war, duke of Austria, count of
889 Guido, duke of Spoletto, |	8ftVe8 the . city-
—891 becomes emperor, d.: Charles raises the siege by a disgraceful treaty.
caused by contentions for La mbebt, son of Guido, 892-898.
the crown.
396 Arnulf—besieges and takes Rome.
399 Invasion of the Suns and Saracens.
Rise of municipal corporations, which become the foundation of the Italian republics.
Eudes, becomes k. 888-898.
Rudolf founds the kingdom of Bur-gundy, Trans-ju-rane, 888.
Charles the Simple, crowned 698-923.
887 Charles is deposed by a German diet.
Abnulf (a bastard son of
Carloman), elected, f 899.
From this time Germany forms a distinct empire—the 'crown elective.
890 Swentibold founds the Kingdom of Bohemia —his unsuccessful attempt to become independent.
191 Arnulf giins a great victory over 00,000 Normans.
896 Captures Rome.
Louis the Child, 899-911.
s
Century.
THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
DECLINE OF THE KHALIFAT. DIVISIONS AMONG THE MOHAMMEDANS.
of the inhabitants.
The Popes Stephen V., 816, 817. Paschal I., 817-824.
go on increasing
in anti-christian pride
Eugeni us II., 824-827.
The Dunes converted 826. and the Swedes s30, by Ansyar, the apostle of the north.
usurpation.
Valentine, 827, forty days.
Gregory IV., 828-844.
Pasrhasius Radberlus. a monk of Corbey, the parent of the doctrine of Transuhstantia-tion, ab. 861. Tins doctrine was disowned by the English church Rtttramus and the celebrated Seotus Eriyena both held much the same opinions on this subject as Luther.
Sergius II., 844-847,—with him originates the custom of assuming a new name U|>on being elected to the papal chair—his former name was “ Bucca Porci” (Pig's Cheek).
Church History and POPES
Literature Celebrated Men, etc.
Charlemagne reforms the church.
Many bishoprics founded during this century—the number of monasteries throughoutHarunal Rashid sent Char-Europe becomes immense. ana\ lemagne as a present, a <U'lies up much of the riches clock with automaton figures which moved and played on various musical instruments.
The Augustan age of Arabian literature.
Eginhabd, historian, secretary to Charlemagne, d. 84*2.
Turpin, archbishop, to whom is attributed the famous l)e Vita Curvli Mayni et Ro-landi.
SCANDINAVIA.
The Norman sea kings continue, during this century. to fra age almost every coast of Europe.
Denmark.
826 The Danish prince. IIa-ha ld, is baptized at lngd-heim.
Christianity first preached
in Denmark ab. 826, and in Sweden ab. 830.
Ragnor Laiibrog, one ol the most celebrated sea kioga, attacks France, 846. aud soou alter England, where he is taken ami put to death—cause of the Danish invasion of England.
Gokm the Elder,^descended from Oden), unites Jutland and the Danish isles, aud becomes king of Denmark, 863—Ins descendants reigu till 1043.
Aimoin, historian, d. 836.
Foundation of the Republic of Iceland
by the Normans, 874.
Tlie Normans discovered this Is-Und bdl— the government aristocratic. The national assemblies iese mm hern kingdoms were ca I AUhings.
Norway.
Harald Habkuagrk, 875, of the race of the Ynglings, supreme king of Norway. Tuts dyuasty lasts till 1310,
Eric Edmunijson, supreme king of Sweden—he dies 883.
Leo IV., 847-855.
Rabanus Mauris, d. 8
Controversy respecting pre-j destination and grace fomented Ado, historian, d. 856. by Godesc/utlcus.
I Pope Joan.
Benedict III., 855-858. Nicholas I., 858-867.
864 Christianity preached in Bohemia. Bulgaria, Russia, etc.
Cyrillm and Methndus, apostlea of the Slavi.
The Bible translated into Slavonian.
Adrian II., 867-872.
John VIII., 872-882.
The clergy are no longer amenable to the ordinary courts of justice, but only to spiritual courts.
880 Separation of the Greek and Latin churches.
Martin IT., or Marin, 882-884. Adrian HI.,
884,885. Investiture hy the Stephen VI., emperors no longer 885-801. necessary: nor their confirmation of the election of the popes.
Profiigacy of the Fobmosus, 891 Pmnon church and -696—Sergius, pontifs-lrom Mar-ggj'	tin to Tlieodarus:
they obtain the see by tumult, bribery. Bdniface VI., or perjury; or dis-896, twenty- grace it by their five days. actions.
Stephen VII.. 896. 897—Roma-NU8, 897, 898-Theodoris II, 898-900—John IX., 898-900-■chism between these four.
Ji'lIN Scotus Erioena, d. 883.
Photius. patriarch of Constantinople, deposed 886.
Anastarius, the librarian. d. 886.
John Asseb, historian, 909.
f University of Oxford founded about this time by Alfred.
Scandinavia, Slavonic NaTIuNS, ITC.
Irene,—8;i2.
801	Negotiations with Charlemagne respecting a marriage with him, and a union of the two empires.
802	Irene is deposed by Nic>phimts, and banished to Leshas—d. 803.
Nicephorcs, 802-811.
-906 The Saracens defeat the Greeks, ravage Asia Minor, capture Cyprus, and compel Nicephorus to pay a tribute.
Nicephorus is defeated and killed by Cruxnus. king of the Bulgarians. 6 \ Amin 809-813.
July 6, 811.	’
STAURACIU8, 811, a few months.
Michael I., 811-813—he is defeated by Crunnus in May, and retires to a monastery. Jnlv 11, 813.	_ . „	m
Leo, the Armenian,' 813-820.	?■) Mamun- n }’833'
The reign of this prince mav be regarded as the Augustan period of Arabian literature.
820 First dismemberment of the Arabian monarchy in the east.
Michael II., the Stammerer, 820-829.
Crete lost to the Arabs, 823, and Sicily to t:ie African Aglabitcs.
SLAVONIC NATIONS.
The Slavi, a warlike, barbarous, idolatrous, and peculiar race, occupied, under different names, the countries from the Don to tbe Elbe, and in part to tbe Danube. Besides Poland and Russia, the population ol Courland, Prussia, Bohemia, and Moruvia, was Slavonic
Poland.
Dynasty of the Piastb, 840-1370.
Dukes at Kruswiez:—
Pi AST, 840-861.
Zieaiowit, *<61-892.
Lkbkd IV., 892-921.
The PoUt wen- origimtlly divided
it<> many kiiihII republics, under Palaliiih or Vaivmlee-aum.- dale (lie foundation of this klugdom Mikcklas L, 962.
Russia.
Foundation of the Russian monarchy
by the Normans or Varangians under Rukic, about 850-862. Rukic is succeeded by
Olko, 879-913,—capital, Novgorod, and Kiev.
This dynasty lasts till 1698,
Hungarian!,
or Magiars. advance from the foot of the Ural Mountains, across the Volga, Dnieper, etc , in seven tribes to the modern Hungary, which they conquer.
Arpad, 889-907, chief of the seveu hordes, lays the foundation of the present kingdom. His descendants reign till 1301.
BOO They iuvnde and ravage Bavaria, France, Spain, and Italy.
Greek Empire.
Khalifat and Eastern Mussulmans.
Abbasside Khalifa.
Harun al Rashid at Bagdad,—808.
800
! Dynasty of the Aglabites, ifouuded at Caiman and Tu | nis, 800-941.
Edrisites at Fez,
808 till 908.
I The dynasty of the Tahentes I founded at Khorassan, 820-872.
823 A band of Arabs from Spain takes Crete, and budds the city of Candia, which becomes the name of the island.
Theophilus 829-842.	Euphemius invites the Saracens of Africa into
’	’	Sicily—they take Palermo.
8.) Mota83EM, 833-841. He builds Saumara, which he makes the seat of government.
838 The Amorinm war between Theophilus and Motnssen-ttolatter successful. Soso-petra, the native place of Molassem, having been rased by Theophilus, and its inhabitants treated with the greatest crue ty. Motassem, in revenge, attacksi <4mm-/iw, the birthplace of Theophilus, and destroys it. These wars, between the Christians and Arabs, were conducted with the most savage spirit: quarter was seldom given in the fi Id : those who escaped were doomed to hopeless servitude, or exquisite torture the Sarucens of Crete were flayed alive, or plunged into caldrons of boiling oil.
About this time Turkish captives or slaves are formed into the body-guards of the Khalifs, and, like the Roman praetorians, soon obtain the chief Michael III., 842-867.	power.
Q A W ithkk Riff ah From this time the 1 WATHCK DILLAH* tliority of the Khtli/s de-841-847.	cliues—they are vene-
10.) MoTAWaKEL, 847- rated as heads of the 861—a persecutor of the	„mvmu
JetD8 anti Christians, whom power beyond Bagdad and lie compels to wear broad *u vicl"*ty. beltsofleatliertodislinguish MotawaM was a jealnm them from Mussulmans. ?"? .er“«‘ W: odi"":
Frequent wars between the Greeks and Saracens, with various success.
Macedonian Dynasty, 867-1056.
Basil. 867-886. This prince rose from the stable to the throne, yet bis reign showed much vigour of judgment. He reformed the administration of finances, tbe army, the laws, and government in general.
Crete and the Sicilies recovered from tbe Arabs.
Publication of the Basilica.
Leo VI., the philosopher, 886-911.
190 Southern Italy subject to the Greek empire.
11.	) Muntesseb,861-862-
12.	) MustaYIN, 8C2-8j6.
13.	) Mtattez, 866-868.
tu his subjects he trusted to Ills Turkish guard, who, tempted by rich promise of a r lution, murdered 1 and placed Ills son on throne. After this ai treason
THE
TURKISH GUARDS DISPOSE OF THE THRONE AT THEIR PLEASURE.
825
14.	) Maiitedi, 869, 870.
15.	) Muattemkd 870-892,—re-establishes the capital at fi ngdad. and reduces the strength and power of the Turkish guards.
872 The Taherites overthrown, and
Safarian dynasty founded by Yakub ben Leis, in Persia, 872.
Carmathians, or Karamites,
in Eastern Arabia 1	890-961.
16.) Mutadhcd Biluii, „ •£
92-902.	the poinp of the courl
of Bagdad. At a later period they were called Htumua, after their leader Hnsna Subah: and hence our word
892 Turkestan independent under Ismael Samani, who as sumea the title of Sultan ot Mawerhal Nahr. including Sa martand and Bokhara; he conquers Persia, 902.
85C
875
900
a
b
d
10 Table v.
SYNCIIRONISTICAL TABLES OF
The Tenth
FLOURISHING PERIOD OF MOHAMMEDAN SPAIN. THE OTHOS IN GERMANY.
900
925
950
Britain.
FdwabdYA« Elder, 901-924. (elected),— the first prince who takes the title of Rex Avglorum—he incorporates Mercia with his dominions—builds many fortresses, which in the Norman period became towns and municipal corporations—compels the Danes to do him homage and pay tribute.
Athfi.stan, 924-940. He wrests Northumbria from the Danes, and is the first Saxon prince who extends his authority over Cumberland - the other princes of the island, British and Scottish, meet him at Eadmote, take the oath of fealty, and pay him tribute.
Invasion of Antaf the Dane, who, aided' by several Scottish, Irish, and Scandinavian kings, endeavours to recover Northumbria. Athelstan by the. decisive, victory of Brunanburgh, 084, eirns tbe title of conqueror—be takes tbe title of king of all Britain.
The Anglo-Saxon monarch becomes of importance in the eyes of Europe—he forms relations with Bretagne, Norway, the German empire, etc.
First political connection between England and France.
19 An English fleet sails to aid Louis of France.
Edmund I., 941-946.
Anlaf again Invades England, and gains by treaty the whole of the couutry north of Wat-ling-street.	___
Edred, 946-955.
Northumbria incorporated with the Saxon monarchy.
Odo, arcliblBhop of Cantt St. Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury, attempts to reform the church and clergy by establishing the rule of St. Benedict In the English monasteries, by enforcing clerical celibacy, and by expelling all the married clergy from canonrles and prebendaries, that they might be succeeded by Benedictines.
Constantine III.
He joins the
sen king,
Anlaf, in his
invasion of England; shares the defeat of the Northmen by
Athelsian, at Brunanburgh, in which his son is slain.
He retires into a cloister, 952.
Spain.
ana.	KINGS OF LEON
KhalifsofCor- the as-
DOVA.	TUBIA8.
Abdalla—912. Alfonso in.,—
910.
France.
Germany.
Italy.
Abderrahman
III.,—912-961
THE GREATEST
Arab prince of Spain— splendid edifices BUILT— LEARNING ENCOURAGED— COMMERCE FLOURISHES.
Rebellion of the barons, headed by his son Garcia, in whose favour he abdicates.
Garcia, 910,— he transfers the seat of govern ment to Leon, hence the Kingdom of Leon.
Ordono II., 914-923—successful against the Mohammedans.
Edwin, 955-959.
Violet
975
1000
St. Dunstan Insults tbe quean E'giva—eho Is treated cruelly, aud finally put to death.
Edgar, 959-975.
Edgar embraces the cause of tbe monks, calls Dunstan, makes him his minister, and raises him to tbe see of Canterbury (960).
The Saxon fleet consists of360 sail, in three squadrons. and makes the circuit of theislandunder the command of the king.
the clergy
Edgar makes many reforms In church a state—receives homage from eight princes Chester, who row him across the Dee: among these were, Kenneth of Scotland, and Malcolm of Cumberland.
and monks.
970 The king marries Elfrida.
Edward the Martyr, 976-978. Ethelrrd the Unready, 978-1016.
New Invasion of tbe Danes.
Under this weak and despicable lung, the Danes renew their attacks with more vigour—the king buys them off", which only excites new adventurers.
994 Sveyn of Denmark, and Olaf of Norway, arrive with a hundred vessels, and ravage the southern counties—the king purchases their retreat.
The following Is part of a catalogue of land's miseries at this time, as given by Lupus, a contemporary Anglo-Saxon bishop •v“ We perpetually pay them tribute, and they ravage us dally : one of them will put ten of our men to flight. Very often they seize tbe wives and daughters of our thanes, end cruelly violate them before tbe chieftain’s face. Soldiers, famine, flames, and efftiBlon of blood, abound on every side. Theft and murder, pestilence, diseases, calumny, hatred, and rapine, dreadfully afflict us.”—Turner’s Anglo-Saxons, 11.826.
Malcolm I. —he receives the kingdom of Reged, consisting of Cumberland and Westmoreland as s fief from Edmund 1.
Indulf.
Duff.
Culen.
Commencement of the heroic age of Spain.
Abderrahman defeats Ordono and the king of Navarre in the battle of Val de Junquera, 921.
Fruela. II., thirteen months. Alfonso IV., 924,—he resigns the crown to Ramiro II., 927.
932 Invades the Mohammedan states and captures Madrid.
Splendid court of
Kenneta III. strengthens his kingdom, and gains the decisive victory of Loncarty over the Danes.
He is
treacherously murdered by Fenella.
Constantine IV.,
994,	—slain by
Kenneth IV., called the Grim,
995,	who, after eight
years of broils and bloodshed is slain by
Malcolm II., 1003.
Zebra,
dova — they take 25 years in building, and coat three millions sterling—the most expert artists from Constantinople are employed upon them — they were supported by 1200. columns of marble, and the roof of the hall of audience was en. crusted with gold and pearls.
The seraglio of the monarch amounted to 6300 persons—his guard to 12,000 horse, whose belts and clmetera were studded with gold,
Ramiro defeats the Arabs under Abderrahman,\n the battle of Simancas.
Ordono IH., 950-955. Numerous rebellions, which he overcomes. Sakcho I., the Fat, 955-967. He is driven from his throne by Ordono, son of Alfonso IV., but recovers 1_ by the aid of the k. of Cordova. 4LHA.<M,«ei. Kami>o Wl’-	867-882.
Carlovinglans.	Carlovinglana.
Charles the Simple, deposed 922. J loui8 iy.—gn. Capital, Lam.
France is now divided among the powerful barons, who exercise sovereign power in their respective domains. The Carlovingians become mere cipher kings under the Capetians.
Rollo, the Dane, forces Charles to confer on him the province of Normandy, and becomes, by baptism,
912 Robert, duke of Nor-mandy—capital Rouen.
DUKES OF NORMANDY. Bollo, died . ... 917 William, his son . . 943
Bichard 1.........1002
Bichard //..... 1026
Bobert............1036
William the Conqueror.
Robert, the brother of Fudes, king, 922.
Rudolf of Burgundy, 923-0
929 Charles dies a prisoner at Pe-ronne.
AMONG
Louis IV., <?outre Mer, 936-954, son of Charles the Simple, is elected by the nobles—he had been protected by A thelstun, with whom le afterwards made a treaty.
940 Otho the Great comes out of Germany to protect the king against his overbearing vassals.
Hugo the Great, son of Bobert, Is duke of Neustria, Burgundy and France; couut of Paris.
THE NOBLES
Berenoer, r —924. Louis of Burgundy, 900-905,
— becomes emp. 901,
Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, and of Naples, occupied by Saracens (tbe Ag. labites of A-frien).
Continued broils. Aristocracy of the nobles
Theodora and Marozia. rule in Rome, 912.
Berenoer emperor, 915.
949 Lotus possesses no more than Lam.
900-933 The Huns pour into Germany and Italy, and commit the greatest excesses: cities and towns laid in ashes, and heaps of dead bodies mark their progress.
The Germans are at this time divided into five nations, each under its own duke, and distinguished by difference of laws and ori-rin; viz. the Franks, Sua->iam. Bavarians, Saxons, and Lorrainers—upon the death of Louis they elect
Conrad, duke of Franconia, 911-918,—successful against his vassals, but killed in an encounter with the Huns.
House of Saxony.
Henry I., the Fowler, 6,—a great prince —be consolidates the empire ; humbles the Hungarians; improves the military system; and builds and fortifies several towns.
929	Founds the margra-vate of Mimia, and
930	that of North Saxony (Brandenburgh).
931	Subdues Sleswig.
933 Decisive victory over the Huns.
Otho the Great, 986-973.
St. Wene8Las, murdered by his son Boleslas, 936-967.
Bohemia renounces Christianity,maintains a fourteen years’ war againat the ei pire, but at last submits.
940 Burgundy a fief of the empire.
924 The iZuTwburn Pavia.
Rudolf, king of Burgundy, elected king of Italy in opposition to Berenger, 922—is driven from tbe throne 926.
Hugo, count of Provence, 926-946,- -he obtains great power—oppresses the aris. tocracy—932marries Ma-rozia—the nobility cast their eyes on Berenger, who aided by Otho, enters Italy, convokes the states of Lombardy at Milan, who invest hint with the administration, but elect
Lothaire king, 945-949.
Golden age
Arabian literature in Spain.
The
Northmen devastate Galicia, but are defeated, and almost exterminated, with their leader Gundered.
Lothaire 954-986, he owes the crown to Hugh or Hugo the Great.
Hixem, 976, un- T,je toons of der the regency
of Almunsor; • Moody but .n-’ decisive battle
who was in fact king.
between them & the king.
Almansor was BbRMudo II.
1 enlightened
982-999, — an unfortunate reign, from numerous rebellions, and the successful vasions of the Arabs.
statesman, fa-for his successive victories over the Christians, but is defeated by their joint forces at Culat Anosor, 998 (? 1001), and dies soon after.
Alfonso V. 999.
Ab.950 Saxony is bestowed on Herman BiUung. Berenger II., 950-961. 951 Otho, invited by the nobles, invades Italy to release them from the tyranny of Berenger—marries Adelaide, the widow of Lothaire—Berenger cedes to him the march of Treviso, and does homage to him as his vassal, 952.
955 Decisive victory over the Huns, which leads to the consolidation of the margravate of Austria.
(986 to) 960 Tbe Slavi subdued to the Oder by Gero, and the German dominion extended to the Warthe.
961-965 Otho’s second expedition into Italy—he dethrones Berenger—is crowned king, and afterwards emperor, Feb. 2, 962—makes Rome his capital— deposes John XII., and elects Leo VIII.
966-972 Otho’s third expedition into Italy—acquires additional importance, with the dignity of Defender of Western Christendom—Attests the —conquers Apulia and Calabria—attacks Lower (Greek) Italy—war with the Greeks till 970.
967 Otho II. crowned emperor.
972 Marriage of Otho II. with Theophania, stepdaughter of Nicephoros Phocas—Greek manners introduced at the German court.
Otho II., 973-983.
977-980 War with Otho respecting Lorraine—he advances to Paris, but is compelled to retire. Otho holds Lorraine as a fief of the French crown.
980-983 Otho in Italy—981 he endeavours to expel
The six great barons who afterwards obtained the exclusive title of Peers of France, were
1.	Count of Flanders.
2.	Count of Champaigne.
8. Duke of Normandy.
4. Duke of Burgundy.
6. Duke of Aquitaine.
6. Duke of Toulouse..
The French government at tbls time Is an aristocracy of above forty great barons, of which Hugh Capet, by his accession, becomes nothing more than the chief.
CENTURY-
Louis V., 986-987,—the army and the church reject Charles, duke of Lorraine, the last of the Carlovingians, and raise Hugh, count of Paris, to the throne, whose descendants, except during the time of Buonaparte, have reigned to this time.
House of Capet.
Hugh Capet, (son of Hugh the Great), 987-996,—he enters into a sworn and written obligation to preserve to the nation its laws and government
Hugh causes his eon Bobert to be elect-d as his associate, and crowned ee his successor. This custom continues UU tbe time of Philip, Aug, 1180.
Robert (son), 996-1031.
the Greeks, but they unite with the Saracens, and the emperor suffers a decisive defeat, 982, at Basientello. Revolt of tbe Slavi, and irruption of the Danes, 983. Otho III., 983-1002, (aged three years).
Under wise councillors he triumphs over the Slavi, and forces duke MiscUas of Poland to do him homage.
CRE8CENTIU8, son of Theodora, rules in Rome, 990-998.
PROGRESS OF FREE CITIES.
The cities of Italy, left exposed by the frequent absence of the emperors, and tbe retirement of the nobles to tbelr own castles and fortresses, naturally seek the meanB of defending themselves. Their walls gradually become fortified, and tbeir constitutions Improved; and this most likely under tbe sanction of the emperors, wbo were glad to protect their subjects from the yoke of the aristocracy, and to foster a power by which they might hope to bumble It.
Thkib Government.- In each city were generally
1.	Tun Consuls annually elected by the inhabitants, Judges In peace and generals In war.
2.	A Council of Crcdetua, composed of a few members, whose duty It was to advise, control, and assist tbe two consuls, whose duties were purely executive.
8. The Senate, a more numerous body, In which laws were prepared before being submitted to tbe
4. General Assemblies, consisting of all the male citizens, only convoked on extraordinary occasions.
Each community was divided Into four wards, each having its own companies of horse and foot
By commerce and industry the cities of Italy rapidly Increase In power. 900—1200 is tbe period In which tbelr greatest works were performed—fortifications, quays, docks, palaces, etc., which to this day fill us with admiration by their grandeur and magnificence.______________________
e
Century.
TIIE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY AND CIVILISATION IN THE NORTH OF EUROPE.
Church History and POPES.
Benedict IV., 900.
Lbo V., 903-906.
Christopher, 903-904. Sergius HI., 905.
Anastasius HI., 911.
The Nomans in France embrace Christianity, 912. Laudo, 913. John X., 914.
The
Bohemians
embrace
Christianity,
921.
' The state of the church during this century Is deplorable—men of the basest life and debauched manners force themselves In. to the Human i this depravity extends through all ranks of the clergy. The most vile har-
the pi In the chorch.
The Benedictine order greatly increases—Berko ln-troduces.it at Clug-ny 910, Odo at Floury, Dukstan In England 960, etc.
The grossest superstitionsprevall-lt Is everywhere believed that the end of the world is near; and an army marching nnder Otho is so terrified by an eclipse, which It takes for a token of this event, that It hastily disperses. Appeals to heaven in Judicial controversies are In general use—miracles abound.
Leo VI., 928.
Stephen VIII., 929.
John XI., 931.
Many bishops and abbots,'nnder the _json emperors, become ebunts and princes over cities and provinces, both In Germany and Italy—hence bad men, end even mere children, obtain the most elevated situations In the church; an arehblshop of Rheime only five years old: John XII., la' euly twelve when raised to the papal throne.
Leo VII., 936.
Stephen IX., 939.
Martin III., 943.
Agapbtus II., 946.
The cormcll, or parliament, of Augt-burgh, convoked by Otho, forbids all the clergy, from the bishop to the deacon, to marry, or have any connection with their wives, upon pain of deposition.
965 Baptism of Ogla, and conversion of Russia to Christianity.
John XII., 956,—quarrel with the emperors respecting investitures.
John is deposed by the Roman citizens, who elect
LeoVIII., 963, whilst Benedict V,. 964, 965,
is elected by No election of „ -i 1 pope perfect wlth-UncU. out the confirmation
_	„____of ,the emperor
John XIII,, f Decree of Leo',
ftae	granting them also
vo°'	the .right of nomi-
nation to the papal
Poland embraces Christianity, under Micislas.
Benedict VI.,972-974,—Boniface VIL, 973, deposed and banished for his crimes. Domnus II., 974.
Benedict VH., 975.
John XIV., 984. John XV., 986.
Russia by Wladimir—they hold to the Greek church.
063 First canonisation of saints.
Gregory V., 996,—schism between him and
John XVI. 997.
Stephen, duke of Hungary, propagates Christianity among his subjects, 997.
8YLVE8TEBII., 999.
Literature, Cele-brated Men, etc.
A sterility of genius and literature prevailed during this century—the minds as well as actions of men seem under an evil spell. The public schools of theology, laws, philosophy, and languages are gradually closed —instruction in the monasteries goes little beyond chanting, singing, and a superstitious and blind reverence to the popes.
University of Cambridge foanded, 915.
Cordova, in Spain, becomes the seat of Arab learning science, industry, and commerce.
Its celebrated schools of geometry," astronomy, chemistry and ledlclne, together with its equal-r celebrated poets and philoso-bers, render It famous through-lt the world. The princes of Christendom send their sons here be educated.
Eudes, monk of Cluni.
Azophi, an Arabian astronomer.
133 Printing invented a-uiong the Chinese.
Luitprand, the historian, d. 970.
Alfaragius, Arabian astronomer.
Literature and science flourish among the Moors and Arabs, and is protected] in eastern Europe by Constantine and others.
SCANDINAVIA.
Denmark.
Gorm the Aged, is succeeded by his son Harald II., Blue Tooth, 936-985. Otho invades Jutland, ab. 948.
Harald embraces Christianity. Svein rebels, and drives his father Harald from the throne ; hut he soon recovers it by the aid of Richard of Normandy—he builds the city of Jomsberg, the largest city of the north, famous for its piracy, opulence, and paganism.
Svein -Otho succeeds, 985.
Eric, king of Sweden, invades and remains master of Denmark till his death, when Svein returns.
Korway.
Harald Harfbagre, (FairHair,)subdued all the little kings of Norway, and formed it into one monarchy. He aspired to legislate and to civilise, as well as to conquer, the countries he subdued. He suppressed piracy.
Conquest of the Shetland, Orkneys, and Hebrides.
He Bends his son, Haco, to be educated at the court of Athelstan.
Eric, 933-936,—he puts all his brothers to death—his people invite Haco to deliver them from bis cruel yoke.
Eric expelled, becomes king of Northumbria.
Haco the Good, 936-961.
Agriculture and trade prosper. Greenland discovered, ab. 982. Troubles till 994.
Olaf I., 995-1000, succeeds, and Christianity is introduced. Drontheim founded, 997.
Sweden.
is an obscure but advancing kingdom— piracy ceases, and trade and commerce ilourish—gross idolatry prevails—temple at (Jpsal—human sacrifices.
Rhazks, Arabian physician, d. 1010, aged ab. 90.
Manufactures of linens and woollens in Flanders, which becomes the seat of Commerce in the west.
Silk manufactures in Spain.
Arabian astrono-
St. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury.
Silver mines in the Hartz mountains.
Suidas, grammarian and lexicographer.
Roswitha, a nun and celebrated authoress.
Grand Cairo (Alkahera) founded.
978 Abbo, monk and astronomer, d. 1003.
981	Albibunius, Arabian geographer.
982	Greenland discovered by the Norwegians.
Aimoin, historian, d. 1008.
Dublin much frequented for trade, aa also many places in the Baltic.
991 The present characters used in arithmetic brought into ”
Venice and Genoa begin to drive a flourishing trade between Asia and western Europe.
Scandinavia, Slavonic Na-__________TION8, ktc._______
917 The Bulgarians besiege Constantinople, under Simeon, a their king.
Constantine VII., Porphyrogenitus, 911-919,—under his mother Zoe.
Rom anus I., Lecape-nus, 919-945, with his three sons, Christopher, Stephen and Constantine mi.
SLAVONIC NATIONS-Poland.
Dukes (Piastf) at KRustVElZ.
? Lesko IV.,—921—an amiable prince.
? Zemomysl, 921-962.
Miecislas, 962-999,—marries a Hungarian princess, and establishes Christianity in Poland.
968 Victory over the Saxons—submits to the Othos—opposes the Russians— defeats the Bohemians.
Bolsslas I.,the Lion-hearted,999-1025.
Russia.
Oleg.	Expeditions sgalnst
Igor, 912 945.
Swatoslav, 945-972.
Olga, widow of Igor, and her retinue, baptised at Constantinople.
Christianity introduced. Swatoslav overruns Bulgaria. Jaropalk, 972-980.
Wladimir I., 980-1015,marries Anna, sister of the emperor Basil II. Paganism abolished, and Christianity established.
Prussia, Bohemia, etc., still remain in savage and mostly independent idolatry.
Hungary.
Arpad, Chief of the Seven Fords.
900 The Hungarians invade Germany; 924 France', 933 defeated at Meers-burg.
948 Two Hungarian princes baptised at Constantinople.
958 Defeated at Augsburg.
163 Ravage the east as far as Thessalo-nica and Constantinople.
Geisa, 1972-997, great-grandson of Ar-pad.	.
978 Embraces Christianity—civilisation increases, and the people become settled. Stephen (Saint), 997-1038,—the first hereditary king—propagates Christianity—extends his kingdom towards the east—gives it a constitution and written laws.
Greek Empire.
Leo VI., the Philosopher, and Alexander.
904 Russian expedition against Constantinople, with 2000 ships, or rather canoes, under Oleg.
Khalifat and Eastern Mohammedans.
Khalils at Bagdad—Abbassides.
941 Russian expedition against Constantinople, under Igor—10,000 small vessels enter the Black sea, but are driven back by the Greek fire.
Constantine VII., restored 945-959.
j	The Karamites
flourish in the eRSt of Arabia to 1 the end of this oentury.
17.) Muktefi, 902.
103 The caravan to Mecca plundered by the Karamites, and 20,000 pilgrims slain.
900
I Turkestan and Persia. IsmaelSamani,conquers Persia, |	902.
18.) Muktadkr, 908,— a dissolute prince, who leaves the government to his ministers.
Fatimites in Egypt. 908 Mohammed al Mehdi descended from H0S8EIN, the son of Ali and Fa tima, whence the raw is called Fhti-mite, claims the khalifat in Western A-frica, and subverts the Aglibite and E-drisite dynasties.
130 The Karamites, under Taker, storm and plunder Mecca.
19.) Kahbr, 932-934,—blinded and deposed.
Insurrections in Persia end in the elevation of Imad al Daulah, who founds 933 The Buyide, or Deylimite Dynasty,
which lasts till 1056. Under their sway the language and genius of Persia revive.
I.) RaZi, 934-940.
An annual tribute of 50,000 dinars paid to the Karamites.
21.	) Motaki, 940-944.
22.	) Mustbkfi, 944.
945 Ahmed, the Buyide, establishes himself as the
vizier of the khalif at Bagdad, and he and bis descendants,under the title of Amir al Amra, engross all political power.
23.	) Mutbia, 945-974.
958-972 Mai.z ad Din. fourth Fatimite khalif, subdues the whole of Africa and Egypt, where he builds Ka-hera, or Cairo, and 968) makes it his capital.
956 Armenia and the provinces between the Black and the Caspian sea,recovered from the Saracens.
Romanus II., 959-963.
962 Crete and the north of Syria captured from the Saracens.
Nicephobus II., (Pko-1 cas), 963-969.
963-976 TWELVE I
165-975 et seq. Cyprus Cilicia, and Antioch are captured by Nicephorus—Syria is overran, and, under Zimices, the Greeks penetrate to the Tigris and threaten Bagdad.
YEARS OF I 969 John Zimisces, d.
976. Basil II., and 24.) Taia, 974, Constantine IX. deposed.
971-976 Bulgaria subdued by Basil.
MILITARY
972 77/e<mAania, daughter of Romanus, mar riea Otho II.—her sis ter marries Wladimir grand duke of Russia,
achievement-976 Basil II.,—1025, and Constantine IX.,—1028.	25.) Kader,
-1031,—a just and pious prince.
961 Principality of Ghizni established as an independent state, by Alp Tegin, a slave and officer of Abdelmelek, sultan of Turkestan.
The promulgation of Christianity In the north, and the admission of the W, the Scandinavian end other nations Into the pale of civil and e<^es,a8‘lc?l	feiviliution To-
from the depredations of these barbarians, and spreads am°ng t^m the bleoBln^of^viliMtion. vasions cease; piracy le suppressed; industry and commerce begin to flourish , and thoughv\ still the pride of these rude people, the sweets of landed property aud domestic life begin to be fe
975 Isaac, his son, succeeds. 1976 Sabaktbgin, a slave of Alp Tegin, succeeds, and ex-J tends the sovereignty.
Ismael succeeds—is deposed by his brother Mahmud sultan, 997-1028,— the most celebrated of the Ghiznivide kings—he adds Transoxiana, Cabul, and part of India to his dominions ; and in twelve different expeditions into Hindustan, captures and plunders many cities, destroy 8 and pillages many temples and idols, and enriches Ghizni with the spoil.
He patronises literature.
925
950
975
1000
b
12 Table vi.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
The Eleventh
TrfE NORMAN CONQUEST. PREDOMINANCE OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.
1000
Mohammedan
Khai.iks at
CORDOVA.
Hixem II.,—dethroned to make way for Mohammed, hut restored 1010- finally deposed 1012.
Suleiman, 1012 —from Africa.
Abderrahman IV., 1017. Alcassim, 1018.
Abdkrraiiman V., 1023.
1025
Christiana.
Alfonso V. in the Asturias and Lean till 1027. Sanciio II. the Great, in Navarre and Cat-tile.
Britain.
Alfonso endeavours to repair the disasters caused by the inroads of Al-mansor.
Establishment of free communities (cities) for the protection of the country their territory extensive, and institutions very liberal.
Malcolm II.. 1003-1033,—an able and renowned prince—defeats the Danes, 1010, and ngain under Sceyn.
Uixkm IIT.,
1020,—a virtuous monarch— Bkrmcpo
the last of the Ommiyatle khalifa, and with him ends the Khalifat of the West, 1030.
1027, in the As-turiasand Lean
1050
1075
Spain
divided into
Mohammed,
1044.
independent
1020 He acquires Lothian, for which he does homage.
Ethelred,—1016 ; marries, 1002, Emma, daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy.
1002 Dreadful massacre of all the Danes-Sveyn, whose sister is one of the victims,lands with a large armament—after inflicting much misery upon the kingdom, he receives .£30,000 to depart.
1010 Eltoard surrenders sixteen counties, and pays j£48,000 to the Danes.
1013 Sceyn lands, and is joined by several Saxon earls—Ethelred fleea to Normandy.
Svkyn king of England—dies, and appoints Canute his heir.
Ethelred recalled, but his death, 1016, leaves Edmund Ironside, and Canute, to contend for the throne—after asevere struggle, they divide the kng-dom; a month after which, Edmund is murdered.
Rise of Sari Godwin, a herdsman's son.
Danish Kings.
Canute the Great, 1016-1035. kingof Denmark, marries Emma, the widow of Ethelred, 1018-murders. or get9 rid of Ethelred,'s relations—slays and banishes several of the English nobility, and divides their estates among his Danish friends. He becomes humanised by Christianity, administers even-handed justice to his subjects, and
patronises literature and the church.
Germany.
I
Italy.
petty states, •apidly declines.
Garcia III.
1035, in Navarre; Ramiro I Aragon.
Fernando I., king of Castile, succeeds to Leon, 1037, in right of his wife—after settling the affairs of his dominions, he car- ward, defeats ries on a sue- him at Dun-cessful war u-sinane, 1056. gainst the Mo- and he is hammedans till his death, 1065.
1031	Canute penetrates Into Scotland—sobdues Malcolm and two other kings.
He reigns over six kingdoms.
1032	Performs a pilgrimage to Rome.
1035 Harold,—10*0, and Hardicanute,—1042.
Violent death of Alfred and his companions.
Duncan*, 1031,—who is defeated and slain hy
Macbeth,
1039.
Macduff, an offended noble, with the aid of Si-
slain soon after.
Malcolm 111., 1056.
Hardicanute sole monarch,—1042. Hi* oppressive reign breeds many insurrections, and makes the Danish government hateful.
1048 The Saxon line restored.
Edward the Confessor, 1042-1066,—prosperity re-turnsunder his mild sway, but his partiality for the French Normans becomes a new source of trouble.
1051	Rebellion of Godwin and his tons—Micy flee, William, duke of Normandy, visits Edward.
1052	Landing of Godwin and his sons—terror and flight of the Normans ; they are proscribed.
Dane-gelt abolished. Godwin dies, 1053.
The Welch and Irish several times invAde England, but are repressed by Harold, son of Godwin.
chief
of the
kingdom of
Granada,
Sanciio I., of He marries,
Aragon (af-J 10b7, Mar-terwardsSaN- 9a, et> tLe
iFacJre) °f "ar^°/L/^,;HAK0LD' 1066> e,ected kin&-
1063.	I who, with | Toslig,Harald Hardrada, king of Norway, and
1065. Alfonso many Eng- H' tlliam. dukeof Normandy. are competitors for the VI., at Leon, take re- crown. The two former are defeated aud slain, in a and Sancho II. '“ge in Scot- decisive battle near York. Three days after, Wil-in Castile. land, U|ion Ham lands. Harold flies to meet him, but is de-the conquest Tested and slain in the battle of Hastings, which of England, gives England to William.
1070 Mai-
Capettans.
Robert,—1031.
1001 He succeeds to Burgundy.
France, for a long period before and after the accession of tlie Capets, has no uailoual history—the royal authority le now restricted to the city lu which court resides-the kingdom »t only split Into a great number of tiefs, hut each of these contains mauy barons, possessing exclusive Immunities, waging war at their pleasure,adminicle: lug justice, and free (ruin all con trul beyond the terms of the feudal compact. The people are everywhere serfs or slaves — society consists but of two classes, the oppressors and the oppressed.
Persecution of the Albi-genses (Manicheans) in Languedoc.
Emperors of Germany and Kings of Italy, j
•Bohemia tributary. ARDOIN,uisrgniveof/t.rea Henry,duke of Bavaria, elected k., 1002- a Ger-
[-1024,—a just and pious king, living troublesome times.
man party invites Henri, —Ardoin loses most of Italy, and after a short time resigns the crown, 1004 Henry goes into Italy—Pavia is burnt in a quarrel between his troops and the people, which causes mutual hatred.
Continual wars with the
Poles.
CONTINUES
WHILE THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
Henry I., 1081-1060.
OAIN8 STRENGTH.
AND GIVES RISE TO
1035 Henry grants his brother Robert the duchy of Burgundy in fief.
House of Franconia.
Con had II., (the Salic,)
1024-	1039, elected id a full diet, attended by the great feudatories of the German nation.
1025- 1027	Expedition into Italy.
1029-1032 War with the Poles.
1082-1034Burgundy annexed io the empire.
1035-1038 Second expedition iuto Italy.
Henry III., 1039-1056, —elected and crowned during his father s life he detests the Bohemians and Hungununs, anti makes both tributary.
IRUCE OF GOD introduced as a check to private warfare, which is forbade ,, from every Wednesday1*"	P°werf“>.
evening till	of the most de.
morning.
This prince renders him-and
Monday one ol.the mo*t ‘*e8l,ot*c 31 sovereigns of Germany— he disposes of duchies TRIVaTB WARS	without consulting the
1046 Dispute between diet, and puts an end to William the Conqueror the form of popular con-anil William of Arques, currence in conferring for the dueby of Nor- them ; he also claimed mandy.	and maintained the right
of nominating to the lispal chair.
Hfnry IV., 1056 1106, aged six jears — under
among the
great barons.
Philip I., 1060-1108.
1072 Siege ofZtr-a, in which;
Sancho I. is as-1 colm wages William the Conqueror, 1066-1087.
BHssinated.
1072 Alfonso VI. becomes k. of Castile, and enlarges his dominions by a series of conquests bom the Mohammedans.
1100
1076 Sanciio I. of Aragon succeeds ae Sancho IV., to Navarre. The Cid.
Toledo is taken by Alfonso VI, after a three years’ siege, 1085—the Mohammedans invite the Almora-vides from Africa to their aid— Yussef lands, and Alfonso and Sancho are defeated in The battle of Zalaca, 1086.
Yussef, by violence and per- Alfonso strength-tidy, founds the ens himself by relstious with French princes.
Pedro I., k. of Navarre and Aragon, 1094-1104.
Durham. j jje completes the conquest of England—Edgt Alheling flees to Scotland.
a. Nrr„ ,„d aj'asnssas
ocols, 111/2—Malcolm does ho- fortltied with their ostles, m sge for Lot hi an.
Dreadful civil broils till 1039, respecting feudal tenures.
The free cities,
Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, rise in power, opulence, and civilisation.
1086 Settlement of the Normans li South Italy.
1041 I he) conquer/! pulia from the Greeks-1060 Ca■ labria-im-m Sicily.
The Pisans and Genoese take Sardinia and Corsica from thr Saracens, 1050.
1053 Leo IX. marches against the Normans—is defeated and taken prisoner, and confers Apulia anti Calabria on the Normans as a fief of the holy see.
Robert Guiscard, first duke, 1060.	1
School of Salerno {medi\ cine.)	J
F ovrishinq commercial city of Amalfi.
Sicily conquered by count Roger, brother of Robert, 1060-1090.
Robert invades the Greet
Malcolm is slam in an incursion which he makes into England, near Alnwick castle by Roger de Mowbray, 1093. Donald Bane, 1094, banishes the English and Norman nobles, Duncan usurps, but is slain. Donald is blinded and deposed by Edo »b, 1098, third son of Malcolm and Margaret. His sister is
Henry I.
landy, lnv England,
of which Pope Gregoiy grants him the investiture.
This conquest threatens to give an alartniog power to these dukes, who, besides Normandy, possess Bretagne, Anjou, anti Tourame, as vassals of France; but it excites the garrisoned by their soldiers. The French kings to U Cau-
»««t"****™ ■?•-
doubled. All places or trust, npi- tern of aggrandisement, ritual and temporal, erei takan whjcl, pr0Teg a COUnter-
tbetutelageof bis mother, empire, and gains the battle of Durazzo. Quarrels between tbe Popes and Oerman emperors respecting investitures and nomination to the lloly see, luftS. It appears certain that while Rom waa nH Karded aa a dependency of the eastern empire, the popes, though “till elected by the clergy, senate, and people, could not be cow! aecrated to the papal chair until the election had been sanfr! tinned by the emperor at Constantinople. When they became independent of Grace, though acknowledged aa heads of the1 church universal, they were still not consecrated without tha approbation of the weatern emperors. Hence aroae the claim of the emperor* to nominate, or at leaat to ratify the election of the pfl|ten; a power which the popea, ko hood as they could do wlthont tlielr protect ion. declared unholy and degi ailing. The popea, on the other hand, aaaerted the ueceHaity of their crowning the euiperui-B before they could be lawfully acknowledged a* aiich ; aud laboured to prove that the right of dicing of the empire waa luvolved In till* prerogative,and that Germany waa in fact a fief of the lloly aee. Thus the emperors Iiwiaied that no papal election could be valid without tlielr sanction lorda paramount over Italy; while the popea contended tlial Instead of lasing vasxals they were the aiiperinni of the empire. The quarrel lasta till :he diet of Worms, 1122, aud occasions much civil war and bloodshed.
1073 Saxon war.
1077 Robert rebels,
from them, and given to Normans; , . no English are raised to any dig- balance, nity in church or state for above hundred year*.
The country la depopulated-
anti demands Nor- Yorkshire for nine yeara there Is ,	not one Inhabited village, and
mandy.	scarcely an Inhabitant. Oxford,
which had contained 721 bouses, la reduced to 243, and eo of other cities.
Doomsday book.
William II., Rufus,
Tbe feudal system eat* bUshed In England,
1087 War with England —Mantes burned.
Robert, duke of Normandy, 1087.
1087.
Revolt of the Norman but the royal authority not nobles	ed. William. 1006. receives the
fenltv of all landholder* In Eng-laad. both of those who held in chirf,
1090Fortress of New- and of tenants
looo /. A rigid police la established castle,, and, 1092, of	curfew—domestic peai
Carlisle built*	maintained.
Norman French la taught In alt ,	^	w'.4" ”
William invades his	and made use of in all «nd quarrels with William
Bickerings with the Pope,
brother S Norman Short, by^the Norman states, who mortgage* qnest. the English become me them to him innnler p°°r>lhe mlHerable.and oppressed, toem to nun in order ^ Mrf„ Rnd T,iU|nH ot Pa*t ages
to join the Crusades, and the middle and lower classes
10Q5	of the present-tlr *’---
come the rich, the
1097 Quarrel with A n-selm, archbishop of
Canterbury.
Investiture*.
Rufus.
1095 Council of Clermont —Hugh, the king’s brother, joins
THE FUST CRUSADE.
1076 Henry excommunicated—goes to Rome and submits to the most humiliating penance.
1078 Rudolf of Bavaria (die* 1080), is set n, unti-emperor and aup|Nirted by the pope—Henry triumph*, and,1080-1083 makes an expedition into Italy, captures Rome, and sets up an anti-pope.
1093 Conrad, son of the emperor, rebels, is defeated, and,
1097 cut off from the succession.
b
c
d
e
Century.
THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES
3 3
RISE OF THE CRUSADES: PETER THE HERMIT, GODFREY OF BOUILLON.
Silvester II.—1003.
Hungary a fief of the Romish church. JoUN XVIII., 1003-9, abdicates.
Most of the popes of this century obtained tlie papal crow n by violence or corruption ; and most of their lives were profligate and wricked. Silvester II., Benedict IX., and Gregory VI., are termed “ mounters of men, infamous antichrists, flagitious in their lives, tyrants it tl^eir rule, and diabolical in their arts." SERGIUS, 1009-12.
Benedict VIII., 1012-24.
John XIX., 1024-1033, gained his election by bribery, before which he was consul, duke, and senator of Rome ; so that the same day saw him a laymau and pope. Benedict IX., 1033, only ten years of age when raised to the Holy see by the money of his father—1038 is driven from the throne by the Romans for his scandalous manners, but is re-established by the emperor Conrad. Becoming more and more hateful by his infamous life, his rapes and murders, he is again driven from the throne, 1044.
Silvester III., three months, when Benedict, by the aid of thecountsof Tusculam, his relations, is again restored. His monstrous life again compels him to retire, and he sella the papal chair to Gbegoby VI., 1044-46.
Rome is at this time so infested with murderers and robbers that pilgnms, except in large companies, dare not visit it. The pope is deposed for simony by a ‘council called by Henry UI.
Clement II., 1040.	The German em-
Damascus II, 1048, peror obtains twenty-three days. from the council Leo IX., 1048-54.	ofSutrythepow-
THE HOLT SEE Vacant er of nominating one tkab.	to the papal see,
Church History and Popes.
Literature, Cele-	Scandinavia, Slavonic Na-
brated Men, etc.	tions, etc.
Spain the seat of Arabian and	SCANDINAVIA.
Jewish learning.	Denmark.
Excommunication of
without the in-
the patriarch of Con- t^ntion oj stantinovle and the clergy or people.
The popes whom Henry III. appointed, were good, pious men, who aimed at
reforming the Peter Damiani, d. 1072. Roger, duke of Apu- church, and re-j
L“ ..........J;‘“ [1073 Knight errants in Spain.
slantinople and the Greeks.
Victor II., 1055-57. Stephen IX., 1057-58. Benedict X, 1058, antipope.
Nicolas II., 1058-61.
Foundation of the house of Wisdom at Cairo—an academy of learning.	1
The French language first begim to be written.
The churches of the west built in a new style of architecture
{Gothic).
Bouchard, bishop of Worms. Leo, the grammarian.
The arts faintly revive in Italy : paintings in distemper, fresco, and mosaic.
Avicenna, famous Arabian chemist and physician, d. 1050, aged 80.
1024 Musical scale, consisting of six notes, invented by Guido Aretino.
Fulbebt of Chartres, d, 1029.
Glabeb-Rad, historian, died ■1. 1048.
Campanes of Novaro, astronomer.
Hermannus - Contractus, monk and mathematician, d. 1054.
Franco, mathematician.
George Cedbenus, historian.
Michael.Cerulabius, d. 1058.
iMichael Psellus, celebrated Greek philosopher and historian, d. ab. 1079.
A law made in England forbidding parents to sell their children.
Soeyn invades England, which he conquers, 1013.
1014 HaRald III.
1016 Knut, or Canute the Great, k. of England.
1019 Conquers Norway.
1036 Hard Canute III.,—king of England 1039.
1042 Magnus the Good, of Norway, succeeds.
1047 Sveyn Estbitson founder of a dynasty which lasted 300 years; but for some time
The country is desolated by civil war. 1064 Peace with Norway, which secures the possession of the throne.
1076 Harold IV.
Canute IV., 1080.
Olaf IV., 1086.
Eric, 1095.
1 First age of scholastic philosophy.
lia, becomes a vassal storing its disci-of the poj e.	pline.
Decree which transfers the election of pope to a conclave of cardinals.
Alexander II., 1061- Hildebrand from 1073.	the time of Leo
He forbids the mas- 18 ^ sacreoftheJews. '*»*** of
church in its He deposes Haroldr struggle for inde* and gives England to pendence and the William the Con- restorationof dis-
Inqulphus, 1030-1109' (secretary to William the Conqueror) historian.
William of Spires, mathemati-
cipliue. _ He becomes—•
queror.
Gregory VIL, 1073-85.
The usurpation of the Holy see carried to the highest pitch—it claims supreme dominion, both spiritual and temporal, over all the slates of Christendom.
1074	Simony and celibacy forbid.
1075	Investitures forbid.
Greek Empire
Basil II.— 1025; and Constantine IX. 1028.
1018 Bulgaria again reduced to a Grecian province.
Troublesome times for nearly a century. Of nine kings, five are assassinated. The power of the clergy and nobles increases, that of the monarch diminishes.
Norway,
after the death of Olaf, is mostly subject to the Danes.
1015 Olaf II.
1037 Magnus I., the Good.
1047 Habald III.
1066 Magnus II.
1068 Olaf III.
Ab. 1070 Bergen built.
The king endeavours to refine the life and manners of the people.
1087 Haco II. and Magnus III. Attempt upon Ireland.
Sweden.
Olaf, king, introduces Christianity.
The race of Widfadmi ends 1061, and Stenbil founds a new dynasty.
The blind zeal of the Christians drives the pagans into rebellion, and they choose
25.) Kader,— 1031.
1004 Samanians extinct in Abu Ibrahim, tenth sultan; his territories are divided between Mahmud of Ghiz-ni, and Bek, khan of Kashgar.
Literature, the arts and sciences, and commerce flourish at Ghizni.
Fenturi, ab. 1020, the Persian Hamer—Shah-name h of 60,000 dhtUchs,
Roman us HI., 1028, israised to the throne by marrying Zoe, daughter of Constantine; as is also
Michael IV., 1034; and again
Michael V., 1041.
ZuE,andTHEODORA, her sister, 1042, reign together; but Zoe marries Constantine X.. Monomachus,1042.
First invasion of the Seljuh Turks.
1043 The Russians invade Thrace with 100,000 men—are repeatedly defeated by the Greeks.
Theodora,1054,the last of the Macedonian dynasty. Michael VI., Sira-tioiichus, 1056.
1080 Blotswen for their king, whoselsAAC, Comnenus,
descendants, under the name of Swerk-ers, reign in Gothland, at the same time with the Stenkils.
1057—resigns 1059. Constantine XI., Ducas, 1059.
The Comneni
Marian us Scotus, d. 108(
BerenoaHIUS writes against transubstantiation—d. 108"
Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, d. 1089.
Rascelinus of Compeigne, head of the nominalists.
THEODOBUS PRODBOMU8.
Eutuymius Zigadenus.
London Bridge and Westminster Hall built.
Booksellers first heard of.
Papal legates sent to the various courts of Europe.
Gregory cites Henry IV. to Rome—Tuscany and Genoa bequeathed to the Holy see by Matilda.
1084 Henry	The Orusades, 1095-1270.
triumphs Their two great causes: 1st The impulse of religion—the crusades were over (ire- ooutlnuaUou and zenith of the great struggle, which had already lasted ® four centuries, between Christianity and Mohammedanism. 2ud. The pas-ffory, Who slon of the European uatlona for military adventure and renown: this was flees to Sa- the heroic age of Europe, and the cnisades became Its Trojan war. Their lm-
»___„ „ i__mediate cause waa the progress of the Turks and their oppression of the
lemo,Where Christian pilgrims.
he (lies, Gregory VII. hod projected the arming of all Europe against Asia; but 1085 in Urban II, moved by the complaints of the emperor Alexius and the IU preaching of Fetor the Hermit, first proclaimed this enterprise exile. at the council of Placentia, 1095; which he agaiu enforces and preaches at the council of Clermont, where the multitude cry out “ it is the will of God." Remission of penance, the absolution of all sins, plenary Indulgence, and v	TTt eternal felicity, are promised to all who embrace the croBS—curiosity, rest-
VICTOR 1L1. lessness, love of licence, thirst for war, emulation, ambition add their lnfiu-1086-87. ence8> 4nd the public mind la wrought up to a frenzy.
Urban II., 109a rirat Cniaade-Ptfer the Hermit and Walter the Pemyless set 1088-99.	a	ra*)tde> fiW/OOO of whom perish before the warriors are ready
Chieftains of ths First Crusade: I. Godfrey of Bouillon; 2. Hcoh of TtiAnA Vermandois; 8. Robert of Normandy ; 4. Kobewt of Flanders: 6. Stephen inese 0f Chartres; 6. Raymond of Toulouse; 7. Bobrmond; and 8. Tancreo. popes con- These, at the head of 600,000 warriors (100,000 cavalry) besides numerous tinue the Pr*ea^®< monks, women, and children, march to Constantinople—they do .	| homage to the emperor Alexius—siege of Nice—victory of DoryUeusn, which
•tTUggle secures their march through Asia Minor.
against the empire.
Pascal H., 1099.
Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1099.
Godfrey of Bouillo Victory of Ascalon and 400.000 foot
SLAVONIC NATIONS.
Poland.
Boles as, till 1025.
Poland raised to a kingdom, 1001. Wars successfully with Bohemia, the German empire, and Bussia ; and labours for the good of the people. M1E8CILAS II., 1025-34, — inglorious wars— licentiousness — madness death.
Interregnum, 1034-1041.
Great misery and anarchy. Casimir, 1041, the Restorer,—war, and defeat of the rebel Masos—wise government—promotes civilisation.
BoleslaS II., 1058.
1062-1076 War with the Bohemians, Hungarians, and Russians.
1079 Murder of Stanislas, bishop of Cracow—the king is excommunicated and driven from the throne—dies, 1081. Uladislas I., the Careless, 1079.
Wars with the Prussians, Bohemians,
Poland again a duchy, till 1295.
Bussia.
Wladimir the Great.
The kingdom begins to flourish.
1015 Russia is divided under several chiefs, of which Swatopolk is the head.
Continual intestine wars.
It is reunited by
JARosLAV,1036,butagaiu divided, 1054.
The Grand duke of Kiov had perhaps some authority over the others ; but it was little cared for. Family wars arose upon every succession, foreigners were called in by all parties, and the country was distressed and depopulated by cjvil broils.
Hungary.
Stephen (Saint).
1038 Peter, a vassal of the German emperor, struggles for the throne till 1077 Ladislas I.
1095 ColoMaN.
Internal quiet—conquest of Croatia^ and Dalmatia,
for a time, Eudocia, 1067, who
Romanus III., Diogenes,—)iv valiantly but vainly opposes the Turks—is defeated and taken prisoner.
the fate
Michael VII., Pa-rapinaces ; AndbonicusI. : and Constantine XII., 1071-81. of the
sinking empire.
HI.,
Nicephobus
1078.
Khalifat and Eastern Mohammedans.
Ghixnivides. Mamhud,—1028.
The kingdom qf Ghizni declines, after 1032, and is confinedto India falls, 1183.
26.) Kaim, 1031.
1056 Abu Ali, the last prince of the house of Deylem, in Persia.
Southern Italy lost to the Normans. Alexius I., Comnenus, 1081.
1082 Defeated by the Normans at Duraz-zo. (Rob. Guts card)
Seljnkian king, dom of Bum, founded by the Turks after' the conquest of Ana Minor, 1084.
The Christians oppressed.
Normans, Turks, and the northern barbarians threaten Constantinople; butthecrusades create a new state of affairs, and by the prudence of Alexius public and private order is restored—j 1099. learning and com-' merce are revived \
—and the empire extended.	1
Seljnkian Turks. Seuuk, a Turk officer of the khan of Tartary, become* a Mohammedan, and settles in Samar-cand, 980.
1.)ToghrelBeg, hia grandson, passes the Jihon, defeats Masaud, second sultan of Ghizni, 1032, and takes the title of •ultan at Misha-pur, 1037.
Invades and conquers Persia, 1042.
Seljuks in Kerman, 1042-1187.
27.) Moktedi, 1075.
Hussan Subah, of Nishapur, adopts the Ismaelian heresy, 1071, — acquires the strong hold of Almowat, in Persia, whence he is called the Sheikh abjubal, or ‘ old man of the mountain,’ 1090— bis followers, called assassins, numerous in Persia
Egypt
Mustali, the eighth fatimite khalif, takes Jerusalem from the sons of Ortok, 1096—loses it to the crusaders,
1000
1025
Takes Bagdad,and marries the daughter of the khalif, Kaim, 1061—becomes Emir al Omrah—d. 1063.
2.	) Alp Arslan, 1063-1073.
1071 Alp Arslan defeats and takes Romanus Diog.
1073 He is assassinated.
3.	) Melek Shah,
1074,	— subdues Syria and Palestine—his dominions extend from the Jaxartes to the Mediterranean. Seljuks in Syria,
1075.
Jerusalem captured, 1076. The Christian pilgrims areinsulted, robbed, and oppressed—a cause of the crusades.
Xelek patronises literature and
Seljuks in Asia Minor, 1084,
Upon the death of Melek, 1092, his kingdom isdivided among his kinsmen and generals.
The Seljuk power declines.
4 ) BurgiaRUK, sultan of Persia.
1050
1075
1100
C
d
e
i
]4 Table vii.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
The Twelfth
1100
1107 Ali' sue- 110* Alfonso I. ceeds his father, succeeds Pedro in Yussuf. '	Navarre and Aragon-------------------------marries
Alt attacks the Dracca, who sue-Christiana with ceeds Alfonso VI. several large bo- in Leon and Cas-dies of troops, tile, 1109-26. itoxa Africa; but
1125
KlSE OF THE RIVALRY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND FRANCE.
Britain.
PREDOMINANCE OF THE CHURCH.
Spain.
Almokivide
Dynasty.
Leon & Castile ; Navarrr & Ar- 1 agon.
Edgar.
1118 Captures Saragossa.
City deputies se parlli
Alfxander I. 1106.
Successful struggle against the archbishops of York and Canterbury, each of whom claims a spiritual superiority over Scotland.
continually,
1126 Alfonso VII. (the emperor) in Leon and Castile.
1134 Garcia IV. in Navarre.
1134 Kamiro II. in Aragon—he is succeeded by Pe-tronella his daughter, 1137.
gain ground.
1144 Taxfin.
Dynasty of the Almohades.
1147 Abdelmu-men.
English still continue ro distinct races— to appease the latter, Henry promises to e the laws of Edward the Confts•
David I., 1124 —brought up in Henry's court — promotes civilisation and patronises the church.
Foundation of Kelso, Melrose, Holy-rood-house, Jedburgh, Newbottle, Kinloss, Dry-burgh, etc.
England.
Normans.
n...i Hen,t 1 <
—to propitiate the English he grants them a charter, and marries Maud, of Saxon nee.
1101 Robert, duke of Normandy, invades England— rr.	pacification—1103-6 Hen-
Curfew abolished.	ry invades and conquers
The state of Eng- Normandy; Robert is made umd at this time was prisoner at the wretched; Henry BaUU Qf Tinchebrai, some feeling of that	1 l(lfl
chivalry which began	’
to soften society, bnt and remains a captive till It was exclusively e his death.
generosity towards ]1Q7 Quarrel and c	_
hiirh born dames and	. . A ,	r
miae with Anselm.
France.
gapetians. Philip I.,ill08.
Louis VI., (le Gros), 1108-37 Abbi Sugar minister.
Numerous struggleswithh is vassals; but the power of the croton begins to revive, and society to consolidate.
The rights of princes are bet ter respected—private warfare is checked by the interference of the clergy—and the
Rise of free and Chartered towns
Germany.
Italy.
weakens feudal oppression, strengthens the hands of the monarch, and leads by degrees of Prince William and 140 to the formation of a middle noblemen.	i class of society.
11*30 Shipwreck and death
born dames end noble warriors; never stooped sc as justice end good faith towards all men.
Wherever the king ent, there was full licence to his company to harrow the wretched people—hie Insurrection iu Normandy in favour of William Etz-Robert; suppressed, 1124.
exactions were crnel —justice wee a source of revenue—judicial minder a frequent Instrument of extor-
Wars between the French and English, and
University of Paris flourishes.
The Noman clergy were rather wolves than Bhepherds—no virtue or merit could advance an English-
Kingdom of Portugal,
1139.
Henry of Be-sancon ia created first count of Portugal, 1136 He takes part with the 1095, bv Al- queen against Stephen—in-fonso Vi., k. vades England, and is de-of Leon, Al^ feated in the battle of the fonso his son Standard at Cuton Moor, succeeds him and gains,
rise of the rivalry between these two nations,
which lasts for three centuries and a hall
1127 Matilda, the king’s daughter, marries Qtojfry Plantagenet, of Anjou'
1150
1175
1139 The battle of Ouri-ques, and is immediately proclaimed k. of Portugal— captures Lisbon, 1147.
HoOSANCHoV.in Navarre.
1157 Fernando II., son of Alfonso the emperor, succeeds in Leon; and
1157 Sancho III. another son, succeeds in Castile— dies 1158, and is succeeded by his son,
Alfonso VIII.
Foundation of the military order of Calatrava, 1158.
1138.
Peace of Durham, 1139.
Malcolm IV.
1153.
He yields up his possessions in Cumberland and Northum-berlandtoHen-ry II., and does homage to him for Lothian.
Stephen of Blois, 1134-54, an usurper.
A reign of
1136 Matilda asserts her claim to the throne—ia unsuccessful in Normandy. 1139 Robert, earl of Gloucester^ the leader of her party, invades England-TTerediiary snccea- after a struggle of two years on suspended for Stephen is made prisoner at fourscore years-dis-	anarchy misery,
the haitle of Lincoln,
m&Matildats crowned; but Stephen is soon released, and Matilda flees to Normandy.
.............. and civil war.
for a day’s Journey 1149 Henry Planlagenet, might be her son, invades England— found in a town, nor a compromise, which is re-an acre of land tilled. Dewed, 1153.
rapine prevall-merous castles are built by the nobles and filled with devils and evil men—they burn all the towns-
1162 Alfonso n.,
tonofPetronella, succeeds in Aragon.
? Poem of the Cid. The dissensions of the Christians
Foundation of the , military order of Santiago, 1175-
He is knighted by Henry and serves under him in his French wars.
William,
1166.
He leagues with France and Richard against Henry II.—invades England 1173 —again 1174, when he is taken prisoner.
1174 Treaty of Falaise, by
the foundation of which William military religious agrees to do orders greatly homage for aids the progress Scotland, and of the Christian arms.
Portugal a fief of the Holy see.
alone save the
hold it btiolEnyland.
1200
Sancho I. (son of Alfonso,) king ot Portugal, 1185.
Mohammedans from
1188 Alfonso IX. succeeds his father, Fernando II. in Leon.
being driven from Spain.
1194 Sancho VI. 1195 Battle of succeeds his fa-Alarcon, ther, Sancho V. in which the in Navarre. Christiana are 1196 Pedro II., defeated.	eon of AfonsoII.,
succeeds in Ara-__________________goiv____________
Louis VII., (le Jeune), 1137-80, (aged eigbt yean).
Great accession of territory by the marriage of this prince with Eleanor.
Rise of the Troubadourt
Disputes with the Holy see.
1143 Louis, in a war against Thibaud,countof Champagne. storms the castle of Vilty—its neighbouring church takes fire aud Louis sees 1300 men, women, and children, perish in the flames—Louis is horror-struck, and as an expiation he undertakes
1147 THE SECOND CRUSADE.
1102 Matilda's donation to the church.
Henry IV.,—his son
rebels, and he is com- Roger, duke of Sicily, pelled to abdicate,	—1111.
1105.
Rivalry of Milan and Pavia, in which the cities of Lombardy take part.
Hf.nry V.. emperor of Germany and king of Italy, 1106-25.
1106 Milan revolts, and erects itself into a republic.
Venice. Genoa, and Pisa, are greatly enriched By the Crusades-
1109 The dispute respecting investitures renewed with great violence—the emperor marches into Italy, takes the pope prisoner, and compels him to crown him and give up the investitures. This forced concession of the pope is annulled by a council w hich, 1112, excommunicates Henry. Nearly all Germany rebels ; yet he keeps the field, and, 1116, again marches into Italy—1119 is again excommunicated; but, 1122, a concordat is concluded at the diet of Worms. Henry renounces the right of nomination to benefices and of influencing elections—he is to invest with the sceptre, but not with the cross and ring.
1114 Henry marries Matilda of England.
War between Pisa and Genoa, 1119-30.
1120 Site of the house of GutXf.
LotHaIRE II., duke of Saxony, emi>eror and king of Italy, 1125-37—Frederic and Conrad of Suabia oppose lum, but are defeated.
1127 RogerII.succeeds as count of Sicily, with Apulia and Calabria. War with the pope,1128. 1135-57 Lothaire in Italy—defeats the Normans—capture of Amalfi by the aid of the Pisans.
House of Suabia, or Hohenstaufsn.
Conrad I., 1138-52, elected emperor.
1138 Fall of Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, chief of the house of Quelf.
Rise of the factions of
Guelfs and Ghibelines.
1152 Louis repudiates Eleanor, who, six weeks after, is married by Henry, count of Anjou, afterwards king of England. By this false step, Guienne and Poitou are lost to France, and annexed to the English crown, which thereby becomes so powerful that but for the quarrel with Becket, and the rebellion of Henry's sons, the sceptre of France would probably have passed from the Capets to the Plantagenets.
Planta?enets. 1164-1399-Henry II., Plantagenet, 1154-89, duke of Normandy, Aquitaine, Poitou, Anjou, Touraine, etc. (one-fifth of France belongs to Henry, while Louis cannot command the obedience of one-tenth) he restores order and tranquillity by wise and vigorous measures, t Jcutages.	1159 War between France and England.
Quarrel with Thomas a. Becket.
The two Sicilies erected into a kingdom, 1139, under Roger, by papal investiture.
1142 Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony.
1147-49 The emperor joins the second crusade
Frederic I. (Barbarossa), elected emperor and king, 1152.
1154 Frederic in Italy—takes the part of Lodi against Milan—takes and burns Tortona, 1155—is crowned at Rome.
Thomas h Becket, ot low birth, but of the Saxon race, hod talents and agreeable manners, which earned him the dignity of chancellor, and the favour of the king—be becomes his chief minister, and sharer of his pleasures, and lives In great magnificence.
Henry creates him archbishop of Canterbury, 1162, when lie entirely changes Ills conduct lie first thwarts and then opposes Henry’s plan of church reform, os well as his projects for repressing its usurpations, and making the clergy amenable to the civil power,
CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON, 1164.
Becket resists them, which leads to an open rupture between him and the king—the persecutions of the latter compel Becket to flee—he la supported by the king of France and the pope.
1169 Compromise between Henry and Becket—the latter returns to England, 1170—his intemperate conduct provokes Henry to an exclamation against him, and Becket is murdered at Canterbury by four knights who hear it.
This cruel act excites the Indignation ot Europe against Henry, and brings him Into the greatest danger, which he averts by hiB prudent conduct He conciliates the pope, and comes to an accommodation with the church, 1172.
Fair Rosamond.
The French language cultivated.
1170 The Waldenses.
Inch of ground In Scotland, except for Lothian).
Struggle with the pope—the Scottish church preserves its independence.
Richard Cceur de Leon, by treaty renounces all right of superiority or homage for Scotland, and re-establishes
1173	League of France, etc., against Henry— his sons rebel and are aided by his queen.
1174	Henry's pilgrimage to Bechet's shrini capture of the king of Scots—peace of Mount Louis, 1175.
1177 Judges appointed to go the circuit.
Richard I., 1189-99, the Lion-hearted—dreadful massacre of the Jews at his coronation.
University of Oxford flourishes.
1190 RICHARD AND PHILIP SET OUT OH THE THIRD CRUSADE.
1192 Philip, worried by the superior renown of Richard, returns and attacks his dominions—he takes part of Normandy. Richard ia detained a prisoner by the emperor of Germany, 1192, but is ransomed and returns, 1194, and renews the war with varied success.
Philip II., Auguste, 1180-1223, — the greatest prince since Charlemagne.
The French monarchy begins to recover its lustre.
He re-unites Vermandois to the crown; and with the aid of Henry aubduea his turbulent vassals.
1158 Frederic in Italy—captures Milan— diet ofRoncaglia-inatv ution ofPodestas-the Milanese again take arms, 1159—Barbarossa takes Grema, 1160—is defeated at Cassano—ravages the Milanese territory, and blockades the city, which surrender* 1162, and is razed to the ground.
A sedition at Mentz recalls the emperor to Germany.
Venice a great sea power. University of Bologna flourishes.
1166 Frederic in Italy—League of the Italian cities, 1167, to preserve their liberties.
Frederic takes Rome, but his army is destroyed by sickness, and he is compelled to return.
1174 Frederic's fourth expedition into Italy- ^ defeated in the battle of Legnano', 1176 suffers a naval defeat off Istria by the Venetians. Truce for six years, 1177.
1178 Henry the Lion deposed—Saxony divided—Bavaria le given to WUtelspacK-U8l Mecklenburg and Pomerania created states of the empire-Luieek and Batisbon Imperial cities.
1185-9 Philip, aided by Richard, the rebel son of Henry, gains several advantages over him.
1193 John attempts to seize the crown.	I
its indepen- jJoHN, 1199-1216, usurps over Arthur, the son Hence. I of his elder brother, Geoffrey.__________________
1180 Venice chief of the league.
Peace of Constance. 1183, re-eatabliahea tlia Independence of the Italian republics,
1184 Marriage of Henry, king of the Romans, with Constance of Sicily.
189 The emperor joins the third crusade,
Henry VI., emperor and king of Italy and the Sicilies, 1190-98.
1196 Crusade of the Germans.
Richard Cotur de Lion seized and retained in captivity.
Philip of Suabia, and Otho of Saxony, dispute the crown, 1198 the former supposed by the Ghiheline-t. the Utter by the Guelfs.
b
c
d
f
g
Century.
THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
15
PERIOD OF TriE CRUSADES: RICHARD C(KUR DE LION, SALAD IN.
Church His-TOKT ANT> PoPKS.
Pascal II.—1118.
Order of St. John if Jerusalem insti-bted—knights tem-W1120.
QELA8IU8 II., 1118. JUSTUS II., 1119.
A faint gleam of light breaks' upon Europe during this century, and relieves the midnight darkness into which it had been plunged.
The study of civil law; the foundation of universities; the application of modern languages to literature ; and the revival of ancient learning; may all be regarded as harbnsrers of that brighter day, which from this period progressively opens upon Europe.	!
The opposition of Abelard to the! p0, church of Rome, and the persecu-NiF.
SCANDINAVIA. Denmark.
Eric T., 110,5.
The clergy and nobility obtain great iwer.
---------------, — — r.........	,,?ls, 1105-84. War with the
tion of the Albigemes and Wal-, Wends.
denses, promote the cause of litera-|nog f>uke Canute, the father of tore: while the crusades increase; Waldemar, becomes king of Wend-tbe intercourse and promote the land.
First Lateran, or ninth Ji general council, 11*23, on discipline.
End of the dispute respecting Investitures.
/flONOBIUS II., 1124.
Innocent II., and Anaeletus, rival popes, 1130.
Arnold of Brescia a religious tod political reforms-ion at Home—put to death 1155.
(188 Victor ITT. succeeds Anaeletus—but resigns, and the ceases.
I sebum
/wan, or [ Wnci
civilisation of Europe.
Nathan ben Jechiel, learned Jew, d. 1106.
effret of Monmouth, historian, d. 1138.
Tograi. Hariri, and Abdallah SharfaDDIN, Arab, poets, 1120. Scholastic philosophy attains its highest point by the writing! of
Peter Abelard, d. 1143, aged 63.
Peter the Lombard, (master of sentences), d. 1164.
Hubert Pallenus, d. ab. 1150. Aristotle's logic cornea into repute.
Avbrroes, the commentator, d. 1206.
Anna Comnena, Greek historian. Jo. Zonares, and Vicetas, Byzantine historians.
Athelard, monk of Bath, Mathematician.
Study of tho civil law revived,
as it is said, by the discovers of a copy of the Pandects at the capture of Amalfi, 1135—it make! Teat progress, especially at Bo-where
|I89] Second Late-i, or tenth general incil.
Icelestin II., 1143. Lucius II., 1144. EUGENIU8 III., 1145
ASA8TA8IUSIV. 1153. Adrian IV., 1154— (an Englishman: Nicholas Breah-speare).
Alexander III.. 1159-81.
Victor IV., 1159; Pascal III., 1164: CalistusIJI.,\\6ti
f’ cent HI. 1178. Dtipcp‘8. der relieves the of Berkshire keeping th. archdeacons dog> hawks, during his visitation.
Order of Carmelites instituted ab. 1160.
Tho Waldensesi Thle pious, Innocent, bu> ulbrlng eeet, took theli »<ne from PUer Waldo, r lerehint of Lyons. Tlie> ipread over tlie valley ot Kedkurf. They circulated he taerad writings, an. « regarded as the fore unners of the protestani burehes. They were consumed in several councils id severely persecuted * laet, by
The Oruaade 'Cached against them, 1178,
all the hor-of the most brutal i; blit, being com. to disperse, theii Ines thereby became ly disseminated.
Je Waldmsa must ..... “A confounded with the '•Hffaues, a sect of ifani-ftssw.
U79 Third Lateran, or eleventh general council, on discipline.
Lucius III., 1181. Urban III., 1185. Gregory VIII., 1187. Clement III., 1187.
Teutonic order instituted about 1190.
Celeotin III., 1191. Innocbnt III., 1198.
Literature, Celebrated Men, etc.
Scandinavia, Slavonic Nations, etc.
Civilisation much advanced Rmong these nations by the spread of Christianity, chiefly by English missionaries.
Piracy abolished.
great
login
Greek Empire.
Alexius I. till 1118,— reigns with much prudence in troublesome j, times, and improves the condition of the em pire.
Order, learning, and commerce revive.
Irnerics (or Wements), opens a school, d. 1190— Bidgarus and Gosius, his disciples.
Vacarius teaches it at Oxford. William of Malmsbury, English historian.
Gratian publishes the canon law, after twenty-four years labour, ab. 1140.
Florence of Worcester, historian. St. Bernard, d. 1153—he founded about 160 momsteries.
Oth o, bishop of Friesengen, historian, introduces the peripatetic philos. into Germ, dies 1158.
? Suidar, 1150, lexicographer. Gregorius Corinth. ‘De Dial.’ Odericus Vitalis, historian. Colleges of theology, philosophy, and law, at Paris.
Eben Esra, of Toledo, Jewish historian, d. 1165.
1155 Eustathius, commentator on Homer and Dionysius Per. ingiuii commerce is confined to the exportation of wool—a woollen manufactory is established at Worsted, and soon after at Norwich.
Robert Wace, d. 1184, first French poet—translation of his Brut, or Hist, des Roisd’ Angle-terre by Layamon, the first English composition.
Lb Homan de Hou.
Benjamin of Tudela, a Jew, travels from Spain to India by Con. stantinople, returns through E-gypt, d. 1173.
John Tzetrs, Greek gram. Nicetas Acominatus, historian. Jarchi (Rashi) a Jewish expositor, d. 1180.
MaImonides of Cordova, one of the most learned of the Jews, d. 1208.
Henry of Huntingdon, historian. William of Newbury, historian. Glanvili.e (Raiuulph de) makes a digest of the Laws and Customs of England.
Peter, Comestor, d. 1198.
John of Salisbury, historian, d. 1187.
Simon of Durham.
1190 Boahoddi Ibu Shaddad, author of a life of Saladin, in Arabic
Peter dr Blois, hist.—d. 1200. Roger de Hovkden, historian. Cam panes of Lombardy, astronomer.
William of Tyre, hist.—d. 1218.
Eric II., 1134-37.
Kric III., 1137-47.
Svetn VI. and Canute, 1148.
1150 The coasts are infested unth pirates—the kings do homage to the German emperor.
Waldemar 1., 1157-82,—carries on a successful war against the Slavo-' nic pirates—in twenty-two years hf fights twenty-eight battles—ab 1170 lie takes and destroys Jomsherg, the greatest city in Europe, alike famous for its trade and riches, and more so for its bitter enmity to Christianity, it was the last strong hold of Slavonic, paganism which never overcame this blow.
Improves the laws. Copenhagen founded.
Canute VI., 1182 1202. Pomerania, Holstein, and Esthemu, couquered.
Norway.
Magnus III., slain in Ireland, 1103,
109 Sigur&s glorious expedition to PaUr ine.
Numerous divisions—competitors struggle for the throne, till 1240.
The kingdom is divided into four bishoprics—tithes introduced.
Sweden.
The house of Slenkil becomes extinct, 1133, when a descendant of Blotswcn embraces Christianity and crushes paganism.
Eric seizes the throne, 1155.
The Erics and Swerhers contend fir dominion.
CnARLES Swkrkkr, first king of Sweden and Gothland, 1160.
The clergy predominate.
Kingdom of Ram.
The Seljuk, Kilij Arslan,driven from Nice, makes Iconium his capital—destroys a large army of crusaders, 1102.
The sultans of Icn-\mum war against the Franks and Greek emperors, with varied /success.
John I., Comnenus 1118. a great and noble prince—reforms	the
manners of his people, and is successful against their enemies.
Christian Princes.
Godfrey of Bouillon, king of Jerusalem. Rohemond, prince of Antioch. ’oscelyn, prince of Edessa.
These three states were rather kingdoms of romance than of real power and permanence. The Christian army that remained to support them, scarcely mastered 800 horse and 2000 foot. They were surrounded by Mussulman enemies, and could only with difficulty procure the common necessaries of life. The new adventurers who arrive only enable them to add a few maritime to their domiulous.
Acre taken, 1104.
SLAVONIC NATIONS. Poland.
BoleslaS III., 1102, — continual wars with his natural brother Sbig-niew, the Bohemians, Pomeranians, etc.
He introduces Christianity into Pomerania.
11T9 Poland divided into sovereignties, Uladislas III., 1140, norni-
BolmlId IV., 1146. Sw™ Mikscilas III.. 1174. cmlwBr8-Casimir the Just, 1178,—he restores order, and is successful against both domestic and foreign enemies.
Miescilas again, 1194.
Russia
is divided into three great principalities : Novgorod,- Little Russia, capital KiewWhite Russia, capital Waludimir. Civil ware.
Moscow founded, 1147.
The commercial cities of Pleskow and Novgorod shape into free republics—trade with Greece and the east, which reaches to the Baltic.
Bohemia, under its own kings or dukes, exists in a state of continual warfare, and of doubtful independence.
Hungary.
COLOMAK, till 1114.
Struggle with Venice for Mara-time Dalmatia.
Stephen II., Colonies of Flem-1114.	ings in Hungary
Bela II., 1131.	and of Saxons
Geisa	III.,	Transylvania, go-
1141.	verned by their own
Steph.IH.1161.laws.
Bela III., 1173.
Regains Dalmatia, Croatia, and part of Bulgaria.
Emfric, 1196.
Manuel 1143.—hi-reign of thirty-seven years is filled by his ware with the Turks, the Christians, and the wild hordes beyond the Danube.
the empire
The Normans, under Roger, arrive before Constantinople, hut are repulsed by Manuel, 1148, 9.
becomes an
1155 The Greeks reduce Apulia and Calabria—Manuel forms the design of conquering Italy and the western empire — fads peace,—1156.
By the
of the
Tripolis taken, 1109.
Berylus aud Sidon, 1111.
New Tu'-hish (Seljuh) kingdoms are planted at Iconium, Aleppo, and Damascus; and these, assisted by the Islam populations of Persia, Egypt, and Arabia, greatly distress, and sometimes defeat the crusaders.
Tyre taken, 1124, by the aid of the doge of Venice—archbishopric, 1127.
Zp.ngt (or Sangtiin), governor of Mosul, 1120-45,—a great prince.
object of
respect
power 8 of Asia and Europe.
Alexius II., 1180.
Andronicus I., Comnenus, 1183,—his romantic adventures.
Isaac II., Angelus, 1185
Invasion of the Bulgarians.
Iconium is taken from the Seljuhs by Fred. Barbarossa, but is restored, 1190.
Alexius III., 1195— usurps, after dethroning and blinding his brother.
The Crusades.
Khalifa and Seljuk Sultanh of Persia.
Nuraddin, his son, makes liim-himself king of Aleppo, Da mascus, etc., 1145,—lie wages incessant war against the Christians—sends his emir. Shirkoh, against Egypt, who defeats both the Egyptians and crusaders in a decisive battle.
1144 Edessa captured by the Turks.
This event alarms Europe, and gives rise to
The second Crnaade, 1146,
which Conrad, emperor of Germany, and Louis VII., join—the emperor’s army is defeated and destroyed by the sultan of Iconium, 1146, and that of Louis in Laodi -ea, 1147. This second crusade cost Europe 200,000 men. From this time
Shirkoh again sent by Nuraddin to aid Azodaddin, the last Fatimite khalif of Egypt, 1168.
6.) Sanjab. 1117,-subdues Khorasan and Samarkand, and leaves Persia under the government of his nephews, Mahmud and Mnsand,
29.	) Mustbrshid, 1118.
Hie khalif, engaging ii hostilities with Ma-sand, is taken prisoner, and afterwards murdered by the “ Assassins,” 1135.
30.	) Rashid—lie defends Bagdad against the Turks, but is mur-ilered by the "Assassins.”
31.	) Mustekft, 1137.
Sot jar defeated by the Kur Khan of the Tartars, 1140.
Defeated and taken by the Ghuz. a rebellious tribe of Turks in Btdkh, he is carried about in an iron cage—escapes and dies at Mcne, 1157.
Salah ad din, ___________
succeeds him in the command, and becomes sultan of Egypt, 1171-93. This knightly hero of the east extends his dominions in Egypt, conquers Syria, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia.
1183 He takes Aleppo, and deposes the sultan of Mosul.
1186	Saladin|directs all his efforts against the crusaders—gains
1187	The Decisive victory of Tiberias.
1187 Captures Jerusalem, which leads to The third crnaade, 1189.
In this, Richard Caur de Lion, Philip Augustus, and Frederic Barbarossa engage. It is the spirit of chivalry, rather than religion, which now makes men crusaders.
1190	Frederic Barbarossa's death.
1191	Richard and the French king before Acre, which capitulates—
Heroism of Richard— he defeats Saladin at Azotus—storms .Jaffa, and, after many a glorious deed of chivalry, concludes an honourable peace with Saladin, by which the safe pilgrimage of Christiana to Jerusalem is secured.
Kingdom of Cyprus founded, 1191.
Saladin dies, 1193,—his dominions divided.
1100
Kharizm independent under Kultnb addin, 1098-1127.
5.) Mohammed,
1101.
1125
Khorasan subject to the sultan of Kha
32.	) Mustan JED, 1160.
Great disorders in Persia ; the governors ofprovinces.
33.	) Mustanzi, 1170, —proclaimed khalif in Egypt by Saladin, 1171.
assuming independence, and contending with each other for supremacy.
34.) Nasir ad din, 1180,—reigns forty-six years.
Toghbel, last selju-kian sultan of Persia, is killed in battle with Tahsh Khan, fifth sultan of Kharizm, 1194.
The Ismaelites, successors of Hassan Subuh (the old man of the mountain), murder many eminent men, both Mohammedans and Christians.
1150
1175
1200
I
a
b
d
f
1C
Table viii.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
The Thirteenti
RISE OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENTS—DEPUTIES FROM CORPORATE CITIES.
120G
1225
1 PoilTU-	Spain.
I G A I.	
Sanciio I., disputes with the church.	Christians, Mohammad- Alfonso IX., in Leon and Castile. Ai.mohades. Sancho V1L, in Navarre. Pedro 11., in Aragon.
Alfonso 11., the Fat, 1211.	1212 Battle of Navas de Tolosa— a splendid victory for the Christians—160,000 mussulmans slain.
	James I., the Conqueror, in Aragon, Mohammedan 1213-70. Spain again Henry I., king iu Castile, 1214-17. divided,
SanchoII., 12-23, successful against the Moors.	Ferdinand (Saint) 1224, king of Castile, 1217-52. and its power rapidly
Britain.
1250
127;
1300
1245 He is deposed by pope Innocent IV.
Alfonso III., 1248.
Foundation of the kingdom of
Grenada,
1238,
by Mohammed I.
1263-79 disputes with the church, and oppression of the people
Dennis 1279, called the father of his country, forms a reconciliation with the pope.
University of Listen founded.
Rise of the third estate-commerce, na-
Disputes with his son.
First letters of marque grant-' ml hy Edw.IlI. against the Portuguese.
1230 Ferdinand finally unites the kingdoms of Leon and Castile, and employs their joint power against the mussulmans.
Ferdinand, 1233-38, captures Toledo, Cordova, the whole of Murcia, Jaen, and Seville. James conquers the Balearic Isles and Valencia.
1247 First war fleet, at the conquest of Se-
Foundation the celebrated palace of the Al-the hatnbra,
• _ G rannda,—\ completed i34a
William, the Lion, till 1214
Chivalry yah ground in Scotland.
Legislation oj William.
Alexander II., 1214, a wise and active man—endeavours to civilise his Celtic dominions (the Highlands), and enforce their obedience to law, which occasions many civil contentions.
England.
France.
Capetlana.
Philip, August,—1223.
1207 Dispute with the Holy see respecting the appointment of Langton to the see of Canterbury— interdict, 1208—excommunication, 1209—deposition, 1212, and the kingdom promised by the pope to Philip of France.
1203 Loudon obtains the right to elect its own Lord Mayor.
Germany.
House of Hohenstaufen,
Philip and Ohio continue to struggle for the imperial crown till 1208.
Ohio IV., 1208-18, sole em. peror upon the assassination of Philip.
Plantagenets.
John, Lackland,—1216.
War with France, 1201-6—Philip espouses the cause of prince Arthur, who, falling into the hands of John, is murdered by him—this cruel action sets all men against him, and the king of France makes an easy conquest of nearly all his continental dominions, etc. (Roger de Lacy’s vigorous defence of Chateau Gaillard.)
1209 Crusade against the Albe-f-"\ Cl ho offends the pope by geoise [and Raymond, count of maintaining his imperial rights Toulouse, under Simon deMonl-t —« P^ced under a bann, and fort—Languedoc is laid waste, FREDERIC II., 1212-50,—be-its cities burned, anil its inhabit-! comes anti-emperor — Otho ants treated with brutal barbarity loses the battle of Bovines, —the king takes part against 1214, after which he is with-
1222.	fill* friends nr nnuii._
them, 1222.
Trance consolidated
1213-15 War with France—the English lose Vermandois and Valois. 1213 The king submits to the pope, and surrenders his kingdoms to him, and receives them back as fiefs of the Holy see.
Naval victory over the French in Flanders.
1215 Insurrection of the barons, provoked by the despicable and tyrannical conduct of John, and stirred up by Langton, archbishop.of Canterbury.
Magna Oharta signed at Bunnymede, 1215,
—tlie first effort towards a legal government; and, except the revolution, the most importaut event in English history. In this are found the seeds of the great principles of our constitution :
1. No taxation without representation (parliaments); 2. Trial by Jury ; 3. Writ of Habeas Corpus. It is also enacted that the
and the power of the
1214 Battle of Bonvines, in which Philip gains a decisive victory over Otho 1 V.,John Lack-land, and the earl of Flanders.
crown greatly
increased.
Alfonso X., Learned, 1252, i: Castile and Leon.
ThibaLT II., in Navarre, 1253,—he joins the crusade, anti dies in Sicily.
Alfonso is elected emperor of Germany, for the attainment of which he lavishes much treasure—his barons rebel, 1260-
Hen rt I. succeeds in Navarre, 1270. Mohammed t	, , II., 1273, k.
Joanna, 1274, d. of 0f Grenada, Henry—she becomes queen of France, of which Navarre forms a province, 1328.
Pedro III., the Great, 1276, succeeds in Aragon— i k. of Sicily. 1282.
1275-84 Troubles in Leon respecting the succession.
Ai.exand ei III., 1249,
> years old— marries princess Margaret of England.
Repels the formidable invasion of Haco. k. of Norway, and gains the Scottish Isles.
Many Scottish nobles join the crusades. The Low-landers, or Scoto-Saxims, and the Highlanders, or Cells, form two distinct races ; the former considerably civilised, the latter almost in a state of nature. The institutions of Scotland, both in church and state, possess i tone of freedom—its military force is respectable, its trade considerable.
county assizes should be regularly hel
should safely come and go, etc.; in short it laid the fouudation of that free and Just government, to have produced, preserved, and matured which, is the Immortal claim of England to the esteem of mankind—'The clergy not subject to lay jurisdiction,
John attacks the barons, who call Louis of France to their aid—the king dies.
Henry III., 1216-72, son of John, aged ten years.
1218 Many English and French nobles join
Mendicants established at Oxford.	THE FIFTH CRUSADE.
Il'iWinm, earl of Pembroke, d. 1220-Hubert de Burgh ministers. LOUIS VIII., 1223-26, Intestine troubles,
1225 An aid granted to the king by parliament on the condition of his renewing the charter : First ii stance of combining supplies with a redress of grievances.
but England
1229 First expedition of Henry into France for the recovery of his estates—unsuccessful.
1233 First discovery of coal at Newcastle—Cornwall tin mines fl.
increases in civilisation,
1240 Richard, earl of Cornwall, the king’s brother, heads THE SIXTH CRUSADE, and redeems Jerusalem.
out friends or power—diesj i 1218.
1220 Henry, son the Romans.
The states of the BUT VAIN empire become STBlirrr more and more STBuGGLE independent of the emperor, in 0F T,1E their territorial possessions and emperor dignities. The cities raise them- T0 0DTAliN selves by commerce and indus- A sc* fry; and, by their
warlike charac- fbemacy
ter, make a formidable appear- IN Daly ance in the eyes of the princes. OVER the
1225 The emperor PAPAL SEE marries Jolmtha of Jerusalem.	AND
1227-29 Crusade
New war against the Albe- 0f the emperor Lombard geoise, which ends in their after being exdefeat, and the cession of the communicated.	cities.
province to the crown, 1229. |1234 The emperor’s son rebels Louis (Saint) IX., 1226-70, 77is subdued-Co.NRAD IV., aged twelve—Blanche of Castile,\	°f ^ Romans, 1256.
his mother, regent.	11238 Frederic ■g““ excommu-
nicated— the pope and he Several insun-ections of the	”	’
nobles suppressed, notwith-
Appeals from the baronial courts to that of the king introduced.
Permanent militia.
SanchoIV. in Cos-tile and Leon, 1284 —continued rebellion to his death.
Alfonso III., in Aragon, 1286.
James II., in Aragon, 1291.
Ferdinand IV., in Castile and Leon 1295—troubles respecting the regency-several nobles rebel.
them hy Henry III.
1242 Second expedition of Henry into France—he is joined by the count De la Marche, but, defeated at Taillebourg and at Saintes, they are obliged to make peace.
1245 Louis obtains Provence by thi marriage of his brother, Charles of Anjou, with Beatrice.
1248 The kiDg sets out on
THE SEVENTH CRUSADE.
prosperity, commerce,
1246 The king’s marriage with Eleanor of Provence brings over new herds of foreigners—offensive to the nobles and people.
power, and
1253 Solemn ratification of Magna Charta in parliament—Simon de Mont fort.
1258 Famous parliament at Oxford,-the twenty- 10-.	, ■	.	,
four barous, under Simon de Montfort, aud subject to parlia- 1-J4 the king returns, and pu-ments to be held thrice in the year, aeize aud admiuiater the. nislies some rebellious V&SS&ls. government—Henry in vain attempts to escape from their authority, 12(12-both parties agree to refer their differences to St.
Louis IX., who restores the authority of the king, the privileges aud liberties of the charter.
population.
1259 Peace with France—Louis cedes several conquered provinces, and Henry in return gives up his right to Normandy and Poitou.
mutually abuse ench other—, ,.	, the pope publishes a crusade
standing the aid afforded against him—in 1242 the em-
1265 First regular parliament,to which two knights
for each county, two citizens for each city, aud _tw~ .
for every burgh are summoned ’by writs.
1261 Burgundy an appanage of the crown—private war and judicial combats suppressed by the istablissement, or laws of St. Louis—appeals encouraged.
Charles of Anjou to Naples.
1268 Pragmatic sanction —the foundation of the liber-
1265 The barons again arm—prince Edward successful in his father’s cause—the king is made prisoner at Lewes, but Edward gains
The decisive battle of Eves ha...,	____
in which Montfort is killed, and the barons entirely _ tie8 of the Gftll,can church, subdued.	1270 Louis sets out on the
w-rt d •	i- •	,	. , ,	,	EIGHTH AND LAST CRUSADE,
112i0 Prince Edward joins the eighth crusade.
By the death
of Alexander1 Edward I., 1272-1307 (son, aged 34). : Persecution and his grand-j _	of the Jews.
daughter, the J1274 The king returns from the crusade.
fair maid of |
Norway, the j	Conquest of Wales, 1283.
peror’s power greatly predominates in Italy—he vows an, exterminating war against the ^ pope, who deposes him by the| council of Lyons, and sets upl 1240 Henry of Thuringia, who is defeated and slain hy Conrad, when
1247 William of Holland i set up as anti-emperor—Fre I derich dies, 1250.
1245 Rise of the
Hanseatic League. I Conrad IV., 1250, emperor,; I1 and king of Italy and Naplel \\ —dies, 1254,	I	*'
Great interregnum and anarchy for twenty-t hree\ years,
1252 Ottocar II., k. of Bohemia, conquers Austria and other duchies.
1254 Confederacy of the Rhenish cities for their common protection till 1273.
On the death of William oj Holland, 1256, a double elec-i tion of	I
1257 Richard, earl of Com\ wall, and Alfonso, king of Castile.	'
and dies before Tunis.
Philip III., the Hardy, 1270-85. 1272 Languedoc falls to the crown. First patent of nobility—
Scottish crown! 1276 Edtoard advances to Snowdon against Llewellyn, the last J1!.'8,Wa8V'f firBt “ttack uPon '“"ded, IS disputed be- king of Walts, who bubmiu to a lmniiliAtimr peace—new war and 1'ered,tar7 aristocracy; the second tween Robert il‘.wllich Llewe.Ugn is killed-in 1283 David, his brother, is taken T®8,116 enrlcllIU«nt of the citizens by in-___	* Drismipr trind and nvoontnA _ iM_____i ,i._	. ___ i__	. duBtry and conimerc6 j the third u>aa Hm
Bruce, John Balliol and others.
prisoner, tried, and executed-Edward, the king's Caernarvon, made Prince of Wales.
For two centuries after this, Wales suffers all the ill chy and misrule.
1285 KiDg’s Bench instituted—Justices of the peace.
‘ moral cultivation of the third estate.
"j 1276 War with Castile.
______...........—y acKuuwicage	Las*!1282 Sicilian vespers lead to a
yr, nvemgnty of Edward, who, 1292, decides in favour of Lai- payment of crusade against Peter, king of Jiol d'sputes between AVirnrrf and Raff,of, which lead, 1296, to tribute to	*--- °
a war—the Scotch are everywhere defeated, and Balliol submits.
‘“^ir Wini.m Wallace, .	^	P°P''
uaJZntlndelfndelluof^aand-\B successful in several en-e S	tbe tJat,Ie of Sliding—Invades England-Edo
ward Invades Scotland, and gains a decisive victory at Falkirk.
SC°t/a!!d- b,,t are defeated br Sir J. Comyn tulwar a, 1303, Invades and subdues	t* ».i
V A * u,u P“r*l|UU»ni, 10 arouraie Between the aisputants—the Scottish nobles and prelates formally acknowledge
SOVereuialH r.f J1000 a._______________1.1_r_________ *	l
Philip IV., the Fair, 1285-1314.
Pope Boniface claims Scotland as paramount lord.
Rogc
1292 A piratical warfare between the French and English, which Uacon.	ends in Philip's getting possession of Guienne.
Parliaments frequently held during this reign. No taxes without the consent of parliament, 1297. The English towns being to flourish and enjoy prosperous trade, especially London.
Quarrels with the pope.
1297 Successful invasion of Flanders.
House of Hapsburg,
Rodolph, 1273, fouqder of the house of Austria, elected emperor—concludes a concordat with the pope, to whom he cedes Romagna—\it introduces! a new system of external and internal policy—represses rebellion — gives charters to many cities and restores order —adandons Italy and foreign war.	i
1275-78 Ottocar of Bohemia who had already submitted to Rodolph, renews the war, but is defeated and slain.
1283 Rodolph invests his son Albert with the duchy of Austria, etc.
ADOLPHUSo/TVassau, 1291-98.
1298 The emperor is deposed by a diet, which elects Albert I., 1298-1308, son of Rodolph, emperor—Adolphus is slain in the struggle which ensues.
THE ALBIGENSES. THE INQUISITION.
;_____ !___________Church History and Popes.
Lombardy. | Sicilies. I Innocent III. till 1216,
Frederick I. (II.) in Sicily Innocent III., celebrated for his talents,
Continued struggles rfthe Lombard cities with the emperors; but their domestic feuds, their mutual wars, the fierce assaults of their national enemies, check not their strength, their wealth, nor their population.
From the eleventh century, when the cities became virtually republican, they put out those vigorous shoots which are the growth of freedom alone. The disorders which ruffled their surface appear slight and momentary, in comparison with the blessings of industry protected, Injustice controlled, and emulation awakened,
1204 Venice aggrandised by the conquest
of Constantinople.	1
courage, and disinterestedness, maintains _ with great boldness and success, the claims	The power of the
of the church to spiritual and temporal Roman pontiffs is supremacy. To effect this he lit up the carried to the high-flatnes of war in every quarter laid Sicily, est Uch dur-France, Portugal, end Spam under inter- ... F , D y diet—deprived the emperor Philip of the ^iscentury—Home royal dignity—pushed on the persecution ** <mce more mis-of the Wuldenses and Albigenses, and tress of the world,
filled their country with blood and slaughter. He announced himself as arbiter of differences and conservator of peace throughout Christendom.
The four celebrated bronze horses brought tojiaOG Crusade against the Albigenses.
and Institution of the Inquisition
________ the tribunal, properly so called, was not established
1210-12 First war of Venice and Genoa. 4,11 im> by Gres°ry tx.
1212 Frederic's expedition into Germany, 1213 England a fief of the holy see through where he becomes emperor.	John Lackland till 1366—a yearly tribute
Rude manner of the Italians at this time—a of 1000 ailver marks to be paid to the Ills wife ate off the same plaie—no' pope.
tiro^drinkfnga^p^inI^omw-^mites'nnknowrr^^ Fourth Lateran and twelfth a servant held a torch during supper-the clothes' general council against the Albiaen-
^.K!iF,7,vited *'.th artLH	Doctrine, of tranmbtlantiation and
525confix enablUhed
1220 Frederic returns, and makes Naples
kings are her vassals.
1215 The election of bishops is transferred from the clergy and people to the chapters.
Honorius HI., 1216-27.
Celestine IV., 1241—eighteen days. Interregnum of twenty months. Innocent IV., 1243-54.
the seat of government.
12tt University of Padua.
1225 Second league of the Lombard cities encouraged by the papacy against the emperor—they obtain an advantageoi peaee, 1227.
1227-59 Eccelino da Romano, tyrant and lord of Treviso.
Struggle of the Guelfs and Ghibelines.
1234 Indecisive war of the Lombard cities with the emperor—1237 Frederic gains the victory of Cortenuova and the great banner (the Caroccio) of Milan—he subjects Lombardy as far as Milan and Brescia.
1238 Venice and Genoa declare against the emperor—1239 he is excommunicated— the pope publishes a crusade against him.
Pope Innocent IV. flees to Lyons, where lie deposes Frederic by a council, 1245.
1253 Rome under Brancaleone (senator).,
Conrad, 1250-54, king of Sicily. \
The Lombard republics, after nnisinimw	„
the death of Frederic, fall under	\Sect of the Fuigellants.
the yoke of leading citizeus, who 1^54-68, hl8 | become lonls and tyrants; yet, uncle Manfred\ protected by their great fleets, commerce aud Industry flourish. guardian,
, who, 1258-66, assumes the royal title.
1257	Milan under the tyranny of the Tor-riant—struggle with the Visconti.
Silk manufacture at Lucca ; woollen in Milan and Tuscany.
1258	Dreadful naval war between Venice and Genoa.
1266 Manfred calls representatives of cities to parliament
House of Anjou.
Charles 1., 1265—85, count of Provence, and brother of St. Louis, by the aid of the pope, king —fief of the holy see —victory at Benevento, increase. in wh«ch Manfred is killed.	,
Conradin attempts to regain his inheritance '
—is nr.ale prisoner and beheaded.
Charles acquires great power in Lombardy, Tuscany, Piedmont, and Genoa, and aims at the sovereignty of Italy.
King of Jerusalem, 1277-prepares to attack the Greek empire.
1277 The Visconti lords of Milan.
1282 Sicilian Vespers.
Massacre of all the French in Sicily—John of Procida, who had fomented this conspiracy, calls in Peter oj Aragon, who had married Constantia, the daughter of Manfred.
The corruption, negligence, and Indolence
The interests of the church become opposed leadto tte*^ derB7, to the welfare of Christendom.	Establishment
Gregory IX., 1227-41—his whole reign ofths embittered by quarrels with the emperor. Mendicant or 1229 Inquisition established at Toulouse, begging orders.
The scriptures strictly prohibited	. .....
to laymen.	These Institutions were
The Waldenses, deserted by Raymond, count of lm,tatioi“ °f prae-Toulouse, are dispersed over various countries of tices and profeaalona of
fruit
peases—they professed to abandon all worldly possessions, and to lead a life of poverty, mortification, and incessant devotion—a great: ber ofordere sprung up, so many indeed, that
Refinement and luxury
1284 Great naval victory of Genoa over Pisa at Me-loria, which extinguishes the sea power of the latter.
1999 Completion of the democratic constitution of Florence.
1293 Naval war between Genoa and Venice.
Naples.
Sicily.
H.ofAragon. Peter I., (IH.), 1282-85.
War till 1302. Charles H,
Charles of Anjou.
1285-1309.
1292 Charles Martel, his son, is called to the throne of Hungary in right of his mother—de- Frederic II, feated — re-j 1295- 1337, turns — dies his brother. 1295. I
Jacob,1285-95—he succeeds to Jra-gon, and obliged to abdicate Sicily.
Continued struggles with the emplre-the pope the church interfered flees to Lyons and deposes the emperor in the ‘•uure“ >“ierierea, thirteenth general council, in 1246 — among other *274, and limited them crimes, he accuses him of paying equal veneration to the Dominicans, to Chnst and Mohammed—of having testified too founded 121ft tl.e much friendship for the soldan of Babylon, and r°UDded 1216 tl,e polluted lilmsclf by his impure love for Saracen Franciscans, 1224—the Carmelites, 1226—and the Hermits of St. Augustin, 1256.
Alexander IV., 1254-61.
The Jews everywhere persecuted.
Seventy-one Jews imprisoned on a charge of crucifying a boy, of which twenty-five knights make oath.
Urban IV., 1261-64.
The popes claim the right of presenting to every benefice iu the world.
1264	Charles of Anjou, senator of Rome.
1265	The struggle between the popes and emperors for the dominion of Italy ends
in favour of the pope, who, after the fall The monMtlc ordara-of the Hohenstaufen, seats a French by tbelr wealtll» obo" prince, Charles of Anjou, on the throne dience'and popular ,n’ of Naples.	n‘—*
Clement IV., 1265-68.
1266	Henry of Castile, Roman senator.
1268 No pope for about two years and
nine months.
Gregory X., 1271-76.
fluence, become powerful instruments of pontifical ambition.
Many advantages conferred on society by monachlam— increased
„	cultivation of
tourteenthgeneralcouncd,at Lyons, 1274. hospitality and refuge First reunion of the eastern and western for	wretched—cha-
rity and spiritual consolation for the lower orders, and examples of piety and humanity to all—education was promoted ^n an use ripts preserved, etc.—but they were steady defenders of every eupereUtlous abuse, end sworn ene-
churches, 1274-83.
Innocent V., 1276—four months.
Adrian V.—one month.
John XXI.—eight months.
NICHOLAS HI., 1277-80,	souse ana sworn
enriched his family at the expense of the mIei ;fall reformi church, he introduces nepotism.
Martin IV., 1281-85.
Honorius IV., 1285-87.
Nicholas IV., 1288-92.
He patronises ciril and religious literature—the improvement ana embellishment of Rome.
1292 The holy see vacant two years and three months.
Celestin V., 1292-94—abdicates.
Institution of the order of Celestines.
Boniface VIII., 1294-1303. 1296 Struggles with France.
1800 Bon\faee commands a jubilee to be held at Rome, at which he grants a plenary Indulgence and pardon of every sin, to those
12^ Canonisation of Louis IX.-S01 witnesses, (be- churches1^ StTplfc* Bides JounnUe), are examined touching the king’s and St. Paul, and per-llfe and the miracles performed by him since bis form certain rites^ death: sixty-five of the latter are verified.
g
CENTURY.
THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
17
CIVILISATION ADVANCES. HANSEATIC LEAGUE.
Literature, Celebrated Men,
____	ETC'.
Civilisation makes rap d strides during this century—national intercourse, commerce, luxury, and industry are promoted by the crusades—the manners of the great are softened by chivalry and minstrelsy— learning and science receive a new impulse by the foundation of universities anil colleges—the modern languages arecultivated — the social condition of mankind is bettered by the improvement of the great body of the people, and by the rise of parliamentary representation for the cities as well as great landed proprietors.
Chivalry rose in the feudal ages, was fostered by the training of the poorer nobility in the halls of the great, and perfected by the crusades—when loyalty, devotion, munificence, gallantry .courtesy,valour,and1 a keen thirst for glory, became essential attributes of the knightly character. Chlvalryelevated and purified the moral feelings; it softened the rigours of war, encouraged the minstrel's song and a taste fori poetry, cultivated the love of Justice and desire to repress vrong ; but It led to a thirst for war on personal rather than on patrioticgrounds-lts gallantry too often led to licentiousness—Its high feelings nourished that aristocratic pride which ha9 kept the Urge mass of mankind in a state of degradation ; chivalry declined after the invention of gunpovder, and the knight give way to the gentleman. Universities founded at Paris. 1206 — Oxford. 1200 - Padua, 1222 — Naples, 1221 — Cambridge, 1229 — Toulouse, 1229—Salamanca, 1250— Liston, 1279.
Flourishing period of the Troubadoursin France, the Minstrels in England, and the Minnesingers in Germany.
Ville Hardouin, historian, 1203.
Saxo Grammaticus, historian, d. 1204. Snorro STURLE80N, the Edda, d. 1241. Matthew Paris, monk of St. Albans and historian, d. 1259.
Elm akin, Arabic historian, d. 1273. Kobert of Gloucester, the tint English writer in rhyme.
Petrus he vineis, d. 1249.
John de Joinvillk.
Thom as Learmont, of Ercildowne, called Thomas the Rhymer—Scotch poet, Wallace, and Sir Tristem.
Scholastic philosophy maintain! a high character during this century.
The doctrines and methods of Aristotle, by the ind usirv of the schoolmen, predominate In schoo' and colleges.
1221 Mendicants established at Oxford. Greek Writers.
Nicetas Accominatus, d. 1206. Georgius Acropolita Logothotes, d. 1282.
Nicephorus Blemmidas.
J.ean Acturiauius, physician.
Georgius Pachymeres.
Johannes Veccus, d. 1298.
Civil law —Bologna, its great university, contains 10,000 students, ab. 1200—period of the Glosses-. Placentinus’s Summary of the Code and Institutes— Azo, another superior, before 1220—Hu-QOLINUs’s Abridgement of the Pandects —Accursius, his celebrated Corpus Juris Glossatum.
1234 Raymond dePennafert, publishes ‘ five books of Decretals.
1243 Origin of the Hanseatic league —its primary object was the protection of commerce from piracy aud pillage—is opposed by the nobles, whose exactions it was also designed to withstand—eighty of the moat considerable places constituted the confederacy, divided into four colleges, of which Lubecy Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic were the leading towns—its fonr principal factories abroad were London, Bruges, Bergen, and Novgorod, all endowed by the sovereigns of those cities with considerable privileges, to which all Hanseatic merchants were entitled enacts commercial statutes, and codes of maritime laws.
Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, d. 1228.
St. Edmund of Canterbury, born at Abingdon, d. 1249.
John Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury, d. 1291.
Robert Grostete, or Groshead, bishop of Lincoln, d. 1253.
John of Sacro Bosco, mathematician of Half ax, Yorkshire, d. 1256.
Rubruquis travels among the Mongols, 1253.
1272	Marco Polo, travels in the east as far as Pekin.
1273
his goldsmith by the king 1285 Institution of the three great courts of law in England—England divided into circuits, and judges appointed to go them. Roger Bacon,of Oxford,d.1292—perhaps the most learned man of the midale ages. Albert, the mathematician and Provencal poet.
Peter of Albano, astrologer, physician, and naturalist, 1250—1315. JohnHolywood, of England, astronomer. Alan of Lille, d. 1294.
Richard Middleton, d. 1304.
ClMABUE, The first of the modern painters at Florence, d. 1300.
Arnolf di Lapo, father qf modern Italian architecture.
Nic. Pisano, d. 1270, father of modern Italian sculpture.
Denmark.
SUEBRIB,
—1202.
Canute IV.
-1202.
Holstein and Schwerin subdued.
Waldemar II.
1202-41.
He annexes tojils'1209 Natural children ex-Poiish eluded the
Norway.
Sweden.
SWERKKR II.
Flourishingtrade of Wisbg, from about 1260,—it becomes one of the House towns.
dominions CEsel, 1205, coast of jPriis-1 i ons
Pomerania, coasts of 1
1210,
1214 The emperor Frederic cedes all the provinces beyond the Elbe and Eider to Denmark.
1218 Waldemar it now master of the entire coast of the Baltic as far as Holstein, together with Lu-beck and Hamburgh ; but he is taken prisoner by stratagem and detained three years by the duke of Schwerin, and loses most of his conquests.
1231 Eric IV. crowned as his
Haco V. 1217-63.
The kingdom for the first time tranquil.
1223 First general assembly (Storthing) at Ber-yen-apiritual and temporal lords and landholder*.
1240 Laws qf Waldemar.
P artition and decline of the kingdom.
Eric IV., 1241-
50.
1249 The Hanse towns capture Copenhagen.
Abel, 1250-52.
Deputies from the cities to parliament.
Christopher,
1252-59.
Eric V. (Glip-ping), 1259—
1247 Solemn coronation of the king—he refusea the German crown.
273 First patent of nobility granted to his goldsmith by the king of France.
1280 County deputies of the peasantry to parliament t as separate class.
1282 Danish parliament at Wir-tenburgh— 1st. Handveste.
No nev and arbitrary tax ea—parliaments tc ’-~,J yearly.
Ebic VI., 1286-1319.
Eric X.
(Knutson) 1210-16.
The clergy (exempt from taxes) have the chief power.
John, Swerker's son, 1216-22 —the Swer-ker family becomes extinct
Ebic XI., Eric’s son, 1222-50.
1261	Iceland ibjected.
1262	Greenland tributary.
MAQNU8 VII. Lagabeetter, (law reformer), 1263-80. 1266 He cedes the Hebrides and Isle Man to Scotland.
1270 Hanseatic merchants at Bergen. Formation of an aristocratic lobility. 1273 Storthing at Bergen.
Election to ' the crown superseded in favour of the family of HaraldHar-fragre.
No laws without storthings.
Ebic II. 1280-99— marries Margaret, daughter of Alexander III. of Scotland.
Haco VII. 1299-1319.
Prussia
AND
Livonia.
EastBothnia
subdued,
1248.
House of Folkunger.
1250—1364. Waldemar, 1250-76 —a minor— Birger regent
The administration of Justice improved.
12M Stockholm fowled by
Female inheritance, and hereditary nobility, introduced.
The original inhabitants were Letti, a Sclavonian nee.
Germans in Livonia, from 1158.
1200 Riga built.
1202 Institution of the order of Short-swords, or; knights ofj Livonia, to' conquer the Prussians.
The
Short-aworda conquered in Esthonia, 1216.
1230 Arrival of the Teutonic order (instit.1190) under Herm. Balck, with 28 knights and 100 men at arms in the territory of Culm.
Thorn founded, 1231— Culm, 1232.
Fifty-three years’ war with the natives.
1237
Union with the Short-swords in Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland— the Short-swords preserve their own master. 1239 Elbing founded.
Waldemar deposed by Magnus I. (Ladulces), 1276-90.
No taxes
without the consent of
the eh and nol
X
Chivalry and tournaments introduced.
Birger,
1290-1319.
Lapland
conquered.
1254 Riga an archbishop-rick.
Ottocar, king of Bohemia, invades with
60,000 i —foundiXo-nisberg, 1255.
Germans,
Poles,
Bohemians,
etc.,
supply the place of the
Prussians, who are extirpated.
The
country
finally
conquered by the
Teutonic
CLOSE OF THE CRUSADES. RAVAGES OF THE MONGOLS. FOUNDATION OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE.
Poland.
Emeric, — 120-1.
MlECISLAS III.,
—1202.
LEBKO, the White, restored 1202-27. Vladisi.as III., 1204, 5.
Hu
Russia.
Crusades.
Greek Empire.
!
JJ06 Masovia and Cu-jatia to Conbad Less : founder of the Alaso-ine (1626).
1214 Galatia, I.odom rut (lied Jtussia) mi’ dued.
1211 Chief of the12ig ConstaN-
Masovia, unable to maintain himself against the Prussians, invites the Teutonic der, and cedes Culm to them.
Bole8Las V.,
1227-79 (aged 6).
237 Salt works of WiUczha.
Andrew II., Emcric's brother, 1205-35.
Weakened by numerous rival sovereignties aud the invasions of the Hungarians and the Poles.
FIFTH CRUSADE.
1222 Charter of Andrew Il.(Gol-den Bull,) the foundation of the national liberty.
Exemption from war-CONRAD, of service at private cost,
‘ out of the kingdom,and from providing royal quarters— confimiati of liereditarypossessi of property — yearly parliaments. This charter is confirmed, 1234, when the nation is freed from taxes—the king promises to satisfied with bis tlonal domains — the clergy not amenable to temporal laws.
Bela, 1235-tO— an opposition elects Frederic of Austria, who is subdued.
1.) Baldwin, count
1324 First invasion of .the Mongols.
The great prince of Kiew is defeated on the Kalha
THE FIFTH CRUSADE,
1217, 18,
by Andrew II., king of Hun- of p'lZiders,'till* 1206“' gary-fM„.
churches.
Palestine, Syria, and Egypt.Alexius III.
THE FOURTH CRUSADE, Alexius (IV.), son of
1202.	j Isaac, implores the aid of
French, Germans, and Vcne! °f the crusaders, who till 1292. tians set out under the b",e?e *nd; “P4*1" —r7T~~
Marquis Montserrat; but Constantinople, and Iconium.
they turn their arms agninst P. ttlce ,im 0a 4 ,e The sultan is Constantinople, and bound	1onQ . tributary to
their exploits to its capture. A“'j^ f^r1203’ 4> the Mongols.
1204 New revolution-j T Qr~k Alexius and his father I, •	,__ •
D.uriered-tta
,etur”' . »«*;" L m«oy lit-
maTile. r ,	~ J *
take Constantinople, and divide the provinces among themselves.
Latin empire, 1204-61.
tie Greek principalities.
Nice.
Theodore
Lascaris,
—1222.
Trebizond.
Alexius Comnenus, till 1222.
THE SIXTH CRUSADE, 1228,
under Frederic II. (excommunicated)—he obtains the| restitution of Jerusalem, and several other cities, which the Christians hold till 1244.
1235 The Mongols seize Armenia.
1243 The Earismian Turks, driven forward by the Mongols, invade Palestine, sack and burn Jerusalem, 1244.
THE SEVENTH CRUSADE, 1248,
Dreadful invasion of the Mongols.
' 1,500,000 Mongols and Tartars set out from the north 1 Df the Caspian, under Batu Khan, nephew of Ougtai,\	.
1 |o invade Europe—they overrun and devastate i4ufraca/i“Ilder	of -Fr“nc*
1 and Cazan, Georgia and Circassia—1236 they enter1"5.8a,ls t0	18
,' Russia, burn Moscow and Kioto, and hold the country*1''P8 “nd .^,00° “eQ'.
1 in slavery for 200 years—1241 they attack Poland, burn takes Damietta, 124 J in j Lublin, Breslau,and Cracow; defeat, in the great bat- marching to Cano lie 18 made '■ tie ofLignitz, the dukes of Silesia, the Polish Pa- prisoner - released UoO-latines, and the Teutonic order, filling nine sacks with 841,8 t0 Acre, where he wastes the right ears of the slain—they invade Hungary, and fn,,r ™ ”"oU“
"itirely destroy its cities, its churches, and its inhabit-!
its (only three cities or fortresses are left in the whole ■Wintry)—they advance upon Germany, but after wasting the kingdoms of Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria, they fetreat to the Volga.
The
country is ravaged by the Tartars tiU
Castles built—colonies of Germans and Italians repeople the land.
1246 Defeat and death of Frederit of Austria.
Depopulation o Austria.
Wars with Bohemia. 1252-4, and 1259-61.
Stephen V., 1270-72.
LzscoII. the Black, 1279-89.
Khan of Kipchak,
1238-1476.
Tartars of tlie Golden horde).
Alexander Nlwski, prince of Novgorod, subject to the Mongols, who levy a tribute, and pillage the country.
Alexander defeats the knights of the Short-sword— d. 1263.
Jerusalem.	Tiibodore
Mamelukes rule in	LASCAUI9, third emperor at Nice,
Egypt, 1250-1382.	1255-59.
These were originally 'Turkish slaves, whom the Bultan of Egypt (successor of Sa-	John Lasca-
	ris, 1259,
ladin) had instructed in	(aged 9), de-
arms, and of whom 8000	posed.
formed his body - guard	Michael Pal^eologus,
(1240)—they soon become	1260-1282.
War with Bohemia
Vi.adislaS VI., 1272-90-warwith Bohemia-Ottocar makes great conquests.
1277 Alliance with the emperor Ro-dolpftagainst him.
New invasion of the Mongols.
1289-95 Struggles of the Piasis for the throne causes
dreadful dis orders.
1290 Wenceslas, king of Bohemia,
Andrew III., the Venetian, 1290-J301.
1292 The pope setup Charles Mar-
captures Cracow j tel, crown prince and becomes duke! of Naples, as ojh of Lesser Poland.! position king, d. Pbemislas II., k. 12<Jj>
1295, 6.
Less II., 1296-1300.
1276 Hanseatic settlement at Novgorod: this was the most celebrated emporium in Europe—it traded from Ireland to the frontiers of China—its population, 400,000 were viitually independent of the state—its greatness became proverbial-“ Who can sist God and Novgorod the great"—its factions and internal broils led to its decline — it was sacked, and its inhabitants butchered by the despot, I-van IV., ii 1569.
too powerful to remain slaves—seize the government and put the sultan to death. They make head against the Mongols—occupy Damascm and Aleppo, 1260—they attack the Christians, and take Antioch, 1268.
EIGHTH AND LAST CRUSADE, 1270,
under St. Louis, who dies before Tunis—our Edward delivers Acre from siege, advances to Nazareth with 9000 troops, extorts a teD years’ truce, and escapes, w ith a dangerous wound, the dagger of an assassin.
tile last klialif
1261 He reconquers, with the help of an
the Genoese, Constantinople from the '■? ........... .	,	„	----- ------------- —
-	- •	' ' •■khM,f,t C0unpt;;l260_ Invades Sy-hrku to reign in Persia—
End of the kingdom of Jerusalem, 1291, with the capture of Aa-e by the Mamelukes.
From this .-wding qiiiu had been im
nc the spirit of dies away—Europe. ed to putfoith ii ect itself from tli sword and religion of Mohammed-that object had been effected, and the enthusiasm which had been ex cited dinks Into rest.
The Influence of the crusades on tlie civilisation of Europe was very great-tlie mindB men were expanded by their tr vel —their manners were refined by intercourse with tlie tirated nations of tlie merous inventions and Improvements in science, in tlie mechanical and useful arts, in husbandry, etc., were Introduced—a wonderful spur was given to commerce and to geographical research and adventure, which led to the discovery of America and tlie doubling of the Cape—In Bliort, a new i pulse was given to tlie mind man, a new world was opened 1 fore it, and no doubt but tlie i velnpinent both of nmn and ciety was greatly accelerated by them.
2.	) Henry 11., 1206
-16.
Continual wars
3.	) Peter, 1216-21.
with the
4 \ Robeex 1921. JohnDucas,
4.	) KOBERT, l-^l Vat aces),%&-•
Bulgarians
Per
j Tartary and China.
Khalifs at Bagdad till 1258. v , .
jNorth of China taken posses-Nasir,—1225.	j sion of by the Khitan,
I Leav Tartars, 906. ^
Persia is subject partly to the
sultans of Kharism, partly w Chinese dynasty of the Song petty native princes.	I at Knifing Fu, in the north
of China, 960.
Mohammed, sultan of Kharism.
attacked by the Mongols, who4114 AW/e* or Tonyusian .	_	.	! Tartars invade China, aud
invade Khorasan and Persia. (lrive the emperor of the
Song to the southward.
1200
Mongols become pow erful in western Tartary.
Mongols.
1.) Jangez Khan, or Te-muchin, 1206-27, Khan of
Jelal ad din, 1220, last sultan of Kharism, driven into India —Iran and Azerbijan overruniall the tribes takes the north — Tebriz taken.	of China from the Niu-che.
1216 Subdues all Tartary.
1218 Invades Turkestan with a prodigious host.
35.) Al Zaher, 1225, klialif— reigns a lew
months.
Persia
30.) Mcs- *ubjec‘ Tansar, to the .	klialif,
cond emperor 1226.43 Mon. at x\ ice,
6.) John,of Brienne, 1229-37.
C.) Baldwin II 1237-61.
1222-55.
Nice is the most powerful of the Greek kingdoms-gradually obtains a sovereignty over the others-reduces the Latin empire to the city of Constantinople.
sword, gols, but the native princes suffered to rule as feudatories.
Bokhara, Samarkand, Ur-Jelal ad gunj, taken—immense mul-DIN, 1228,j titudes massacred, returns !
to Persia—|1222 Pursues Jelal ad din to is defeated! tl,e Indus—destroys Balkh and disap-j Bamian Ghizni. pears—his!
family put 1224 Vain attempt upon Into the i dia.
! 1225 Janjez Khan returns from j India through Persia — general muster of his troops at Karacorum, ; between tlie rivers Tula and Or-chon—marches for China, and dies upon tlie expedition: tlie empire is divided among his four sons.
2.) Ougtai Khan, 1227— ! 41—completes the conquest 1 of north China.
Khan of Kipchak.
Batu Khan, 1236-43 —nephew of Ougtai— invades Europe — devastates Russia, Poland, Hungary, and advances to the Danube—establishes himself as first Khan of __ Kipchak.___________
122H
Ixifins—Baldwin, and the principal Latin families escape to Italy.
Genoa obtains Galata, Pera,
Caffa, and A sou.
Mongols in Asia Minor.
Michael blinds and banishes the young prince, John Lascaris, and is excora
37.) Mrs- Khan of Persia,
TAZKM.kbalif, 1236-1335.	|
1243—putto 1.) HuL\KU,bro- 1241-45 Troubles and indeath by the ther of the great terregnum upon Ougtai’s Mongols, Khan, enters Per-. death.
1258. sia and becomes
sultan, 1256-65:	3 ) Guyug Khan, 1245-
End of destroys the last of 43 — encourages Christian the khalifat	!
of Bagdad, killed at its cap -Another interregnum, 1248-ture) and puts the 51.	I
Tho uncle of khalif to death,!
Egypt, 1258 — reduces : 4.) Mangu Kiian, 1251-Mesopotamia.	59—sends his brother Hu-
1250
Dominion of the Ha melukes In Syria.
ritual power ria, but is repulsed subdues Thibet as far as In-tiii i5ir. by the Mamelukes, dia.
1260 ~	I
[ 5.) Kublia Khan, 1259-_ 94 — resides chiefly in the1 2.) Abaka,1265, north of China—builds Pe-1 extends his powerVm and makes it his capital'
municated by the patriarch Arsenius..over the Seljuk Turks of Anato- — jjjs dynasty is called Axuroxicl's, the elder, aMwiatedwithj((a/_.^,"^~b'%t,^PL^e_!eait^ortllTu-EN b» Chiaeee hieto-
his father, 1273.
1274-85 Union with the Latin church. 1277-82 Persecution of the Greeks.
Rise of tho Ottomans.
I l.ySi-LiMia SnAir, a Turk officer, in the service of Jalal ad din.
2.) Obtiicobdi., liisson, enters tlie service of Ala ad din. and has lauds c Bigued him iu Iconium.
3.) Othman, his aon, establishes him pelf in the north of Asia Minor, as chief of 400 faini-jlies, 1281.
great power.
Andbonicus, alone 1281-1328.
1292 The Mongols
The Genoese obtain drive the lastsultan 1 tlie trade of tlie 0f Iconium from his mack Sea, and t^rone—J,e diqs at
Constantinople, 1308.
Othman presses through the passes of Olympus, invades Nicomedia, and fouuds the
Syria by the Mamelukes, 1280. ,
3 ) Nekodar, 1281, or sultan;
Ahmed—becomes a Mohamme-1279 Subdues the southern dan.	. kingdom of China.
4.	) Arghun Kiian, 1284—!
persecutes the Mohammedans, j Great Khan of China,
1	1279-1368.
5. ) Kai Khatu, 1291—at- „	..
tempts to introduce paper money: “	* °P e U u
causes a general panic and in-' surrections.
Ut/Ull BUUpVB tuc
religion and manners. |
It waa he whom Marco Polo 1 viaited in his travels east, 1272- 95.
6.) Tymur Kiian, 1294,
6.	) BaiduKhan, 1295-reigns five months.
7.	) Ghazan Khan, 1295-	,	,
1304—compels his Mongol sub-'grandson of Kublai—a weak jects to become Mohammedans. prjnCe — the power of the 1261 Sadi, the poet, dies, aged 116, athouse of Jangez declines Shirat.	jtill 1368, when Tohoan-Ty-
. \mur, the last emperor of this
1299	Dreadful famine and pesti- family, is driven from China lence—50,000 die in Shiraz, ky the and he and his
descendants become petty
1300	Syria and Palestine con-!prjDceg 0f Karakorum. quered ; but recovered in 13031
by the Mamelukes.
1300
f
a
b
d
I
18 Table
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
The Fourteenth
SUCCESSFUL WARS OF ENGLAND AGAINST FRANCE AND SCOTLAND—EDWARl) THE BLACK PRINCE.
Portugal. *
1300
1325
1350
1375
1400
Spain.
Dennis,— 1325.
The third estate send representatives to parliament.
Alfonso IV., 1325-57.
Private warfare forbidden —the nobility compelled to sue in the or-dinaiy courts of justice.
1314 Tunis tributary.
1319 Parliament at Tarragona — the kingdom consolidated and declared indivisible.
1326 Sardinia conquered from Genoa, in consequence of the gift of the pope, 1297.
Alfonso IV., 1327-36.
1334 War with Castile.
1340
Alfonso assists Castile against the Mohammedans.
Peter I., 1357-67.
Ferdinand,
1397-83.
War with
Castile respecting the succession.
A deplorabl ( ign for
1382	Ferdinand declares his daughter Beatrice successor, and
marries her to John 1. of Castile.
1383	Revolution— John (natural son of Peter 1.) regent—war with Castile till 1411.
The spa-rloua Burgundians,
1395-1586.
John J., king, 1385-1433.
Victory of Aljuharotta over Castile,\ 1385.
Navarrs Joined to tlie French crown.
Aragon. Castile & Leon.
Jacob II. till Ferdinand IV. 1327.	till 1312.
1309 Captures Gibraltar (\ott again, 1333.)
Persecution, and, 1310, suppression of the Knights Templars.
Alfonso XI., 1312-50.
and prudent conduct.
1324 Parliament at Valladolid. First trace of cities sending representatives.
Internal troubles, 1324-38.
1319 The popeexcommuni-cates Bruce and his adherents—spirited reply of the Scotch parliament.
f David II., 1329-Randolph regent.
Peter IV., 1336-87.
1314 The Balearic kingdom of Majorca, Roussillon, and Cerdagne acquired.
1347 The barons unite against the king; but he overcomes them by the help of the people, 1348 — abrogates the privileges of union, but enacts many laws for the security of the subject, and gives great authority to the justiciary.
1337 Private revenge forbidden — disputes to be settled by law tribunals.
1340 Great victory over the Mohammedans ti at Tariffa.
1349 Parliament of Alcala de Henares—e igh-teen principal cities acknowledged free — publication of the code called Partida.
Peter (the Cruel), 1350-
Civil war interrupts husbandry—a famine and pestilence ensue, and produce ;he greatest misery.
One hundred and twenty years struggle with the aristocrat nobles, who consolidate their power.
1355-58 War with Castile.
1363 Alliance with Edward the Black Prince against France and Henry, Peter’* brother,.who invade Castile. 1366 Peter it driven from the throne; but restored by the aid of the P£ac£ Prince, 1367. Battle of Nava-rete.
•	Henry II., of
Traatamare, natural brother i; of the king, 1368-79 — he defeats and murders Peter. Henry tains himself in opposition the claims the	king	of
Portugal the	duke	of
Lancaster.
John I., 1379-
John I., 1387-95.
Martin V., 1395-1410,
1382 Marries Beatrice of Portugal. Henry III., 1390-1406, (aged nine yrs.) Domestic troubles.
Scotland.
England.
Plantagenets.
Edward I.—1307.
1303 Edward invades Scotland—Wallace is betrayed, captured and beheaded—Scotland submits.
France.
Oapetians.
Philip IV. (the Fair)—1314.
1301	Quarrel with the pope— Philip comes off successful.
1302	First convocation of the states-ge-neral.
1303 Guienne restored to Edward by Philip.
War with Flanders—victory of Mons en Puelle, 1304.
1306 Bi'uce stabs Cornyn, the heir of Balliol, and is proclaimed king—Edward holds a grand military court at Westminster, at which he and his son solemnly swear never to rest till Scotland is entirely subdued—Bruce is obliged to flee—he wanders about and suffers the greatest privations—gains some slight advantages—Edward dies on the borders.
| Edward II., 1307-1327, sged 23 years.
I Marries, 1807, Isabella, daughter of Philip IV. of Francs ; through whom Bruce strengthens him-,	come ;be p^uloa, of French crown.
self by repeated advantages jVeak government by favourites—P. Gaveston.
1311 The barons extort a reformation of abuses—parliaments to be held every year, and to appoint to all great offices—
Gaveston banished—returns and is executed, 1312.
1314 Edward invades Scotland, and is defeated at Bannockburn.
The Scots repeatedly invade England—advance into Yorkshire.
The Scots, under the king’s brother, invade Ireland—unsuccessful.
Hugh de Spenser, the king’s favourite, offends the barons — banished by parliament—1321 an insult to the queen strengthens the king—he defeats the barons—Lancaster executed,
1322.
1323 Conspiracy against the king, headed by the queen, the bishop of Hertford, and Mortimer—the queen visits Paris— lands in England, 1325—the king is deserted—deposed by _	parliament, and cruelly murdered at Berkley castle, 1327.
Truce with England, 1323, for twelve years.
1326 The Scots ravage the English borders—expedition of Edward III. against them, with little success, 1327—peace between the two countries, in which
The independence of Scotland is acknowledged.
Edward HI., 1327-77, aged 14 years,
Under a council of regency, the Queen-mother and Mortimer at its head—their conduct excites discontent—they arrest the earl of Kent, nnde of the king, accuse, condemn, and execute him—the king escapes from their power, 1330—Mortimer is arraigned in parliament, condemned, and executed—the queen confined for life.
1332	Edward invades Scotlandr-Balliol is set up and crowned; is again expelled.
1333	Edward’s victory at Halidon Hill—restores Balliol, who does homage to Edward, and cedes to him the southern parts of Scotland.
1337	Edward lays claim to France (through his mother, Isabella, daughter of Philip the Fair), which gives rise, 1338, to a
Struggle for the French crown of 120 years’ duration.
1338	War with France—Edward's first campaign in Flanders fruitless—invades France, 1339 —gains, 1340, the great naval victory of Helvoet Slugs, which gives a great superiority of strength and spirit to the English navy—attacks Toumay—new campaign, 1341-3—
Navy of England establishes its superiority.
1344 New wer—new Invasion of France, 1348-Edward, with hie son, the Black Prince, overruns Normandy, and advances upon Paris—retreats, and is In danger of being cut off.
1340 Glorious battle of Creasy, in which were slain John, king of Bohemia, the king of Majorca, the count D'Altncon, the French king’s brother, 1200 knights, 1600 gentlemen, 4000 men at arms, and 30,000 infantry.
1847 Siege and capture of Calais (retained till 1658)—truce, 134S.
1346 David invades England with a large force—he is defeated and made prisoner at the battle of Neville's Cross.
1340 Order of the Garter instituted.
The Stuart regent.
The papal court at Avignon.
1306	Persecution of the Jews.
1307	Persecution of the Knights Templars, who are finally suppressed, 1313.
1311 Lyons united to France.
Louis X. (Hutin), 1314-16.
1315 Edict for the enfranchisement of slaves.
Philip V. (the Long), 1316-22.
He succeeds, by virtue of the salique
law, now first established.
Charles IV. (the Fair), 1322-21
The wives of the last three monarchs
were all convicted of adultery.
In default of male issue the crown goes to The House of Valois.
Philip VI. of Valois, 1328-50.
Brother’s son of Philip the Fair. Edward of England claims the throne.
1332 The Flemings are persuaded by Robert D’Artois and Artevelde to revolt, and to acknowledge Edward III., who supports them, as king of France.
1350 Victory of Edward over the Spanish fleet.
1356 Edward III. again invades Scotland, but is obliged to retreat.
Parliament divided Into two chambers, lords spiritual end temporal—knlglitu for tbe sblres and burgesses, as at present. During tbls reign the Commons establish several rights: l.The Illegality of raising money without their consent; 2. The necessity that the two Houses should concur for any alterations In the law; 8. Right of the Common* to enquire Into public abuses,
1364 Marriage of David to Margaret Logie.
Dreadful famine and plagne. 1338 No taxes without parliament. John (the Good), 1350-64.
Civil troubles—tbe king causes count Harcourt, and other nobles, to be put to death without trial.
Turbulence of Charles (the Bad), king of Navarre.
More frequent meeting of the states-ge-neral, and desire for constitutional freedom.
impeach public counsellors.
Manufactures and commerce exhibit an affluence, and an expanding growth,
Edward Invites over many Flemings, who Introduced the liner manufacture of woollen clothe—commerce, nest to liberty, becomes the leading object of parliament—merchants are esteemed more houourable than heretofore; many possess great wealth.
The clergy evince a disposition to shake off the despotic yoke of papacy.
The parliament, In 1366, unanimously pats an end to the ennual payment of le.holy see.
1356 Battle of Poitiers, in which Edward, the Black Prince, takes John.prisoner, and completely route the French army, 60,000 strong, the English only 8000—two years’ truce.
The noble conduct of the Prince of Wales to his royal captive, a brilliant display of the chlvelric character.
I Charter,thedauphin,regent— Insurrection in Paris, headed by Marcels.
| Civil war of the jacquerie (peasantry).
1358 Edward again invades and ravages France—1360 Peace of Bretigni, by which John regains his liberty, and cedes much territory to England.
1362-67 The Black Prince aids Peter the Cruel, of Castile, to[10£fI**LE8 Y*> Wise), 1364-1380. recover his throne.	1365 War Wlt" Havarre, ended by the
I battle of Auray.
1369 Truce between England and Scotland extended to fourteen years.
Edward oppresses Aquitaine, which leads ton new war, 1369—the English, through the old age of the king, and illness of the Black Prince, lose all in France except Bordeaux, Bayonne, and Calais—truce, 1374—war renewed, 1377—truce, 1379.
1376 Death of the Black Prince—a permanent council of ten or twelve appointed to transact all affairsjof importance.
Richard II., 1377-99, aged 11 years—son of the Black Prince.
1378 Fruitless invasion of France.	F'r>o/c^Z^, mi*™*
Insurrection of Wat Tyler—100,000, mostly rabble, enter London -they commit various outrages— Walworth kills IVat Tyler, (title of Lord first conferred on the Mayor of London)—the mob disperse.
1382 The king marries Amu, daughter of the emperor Charles IV.
General discontent—\tn causes: 1. The effects of the successful and eipenslve wars of Edward III.—2. General desire for the abolition of personal slavery—
8. Spread of Wicldiffds doctrines, and the wealth, lmury, ambition, and c— rupttonof the clergy-A The king’s extravagance, luxury, and favouritism.
1384 The duke of Lancaster accused of treason—goes Into Spain to win the throne of Castile.
1886 The Commons Impeach the ehtneellor De la This, as they do, 1387, the at the1
House of Stuart Robert II., 1371-90, aged 55, grandaon of Margery, sister of Robert Bruce. 378-81 Warwith England —chiefly on the borders.
1384	The Scots, assisted by France, invade England.
1385	The English burn Edinburgh, at this time composed of little more than “ miserable huts.” 1388 Battle of Otterbourne, in which Hotspur is defeated—truce, 1389.
Robert IU., 1390-1405.
The king’s brother, the earl of Fife, afterwards duke of Albany, has the chief rule.
Tom by private feuds. 1396 Combat between the clans Chattan and Quhele.
Albany schemes againsttlie king’s son David, duke of Rothsay—destroys him.
------the duke of Gloucester (uncle to the king).
18S»Thek'D*recoTer9 tl,e government- William of Wykeham chancellor-1390 grand tournament at London.
Persecution of the Wickliffit 6s.
1398	Henry of Lancaster and the dnke of Norfolk banished—the kina rules tv-
ranlcally—expedition against Ireland.	7
1399	Hoary, duke of Lancaster, returns—starts aa the champion of public liberty —is joined by many nobles and much people-he Inveigles Richard, almost generally forsaken, Into his power, who reeigns the crown—dieB, or escapes to ocoiiandu
_	Housa of Lancaster.
Henry IV., 1399-1413, grandson of Edward III, aged 32. , The pride of the populace, and master of the parliament.
1400 Henry invades Scotland.
Charles VI. (the Maniac), 1380-1422.
Charles crushes the rising spirit of constitutional freedom.
Absolute monarchy.
Struggle of the dukes of Anjou, Bern, and Burgundy for the regency—insurrections in Paris, Rouen, etc.
1382 Battle of Rosbecq, in which the insurgent Flemings, under Artevelde, are routed, and Artevelde killed.
1383 Punishment of tbe Parisian Insurgents—taxes foreibly collected—the third estate subjected and enslaved.
1386 Fruitless attempt to invade England.
1392 The king seized with madness, and remains s maniac, with few lucid intervals, till his death.
Struggle of the dukes of Orleans and
Burgundy for the regency.
A wretched reign._______
f
Century.
THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
19
RAPID RISE OF TURKISH POWER—TAMERLANE FOUNDS A NEW EMPIRE.
Ebjc VII. —1319.
Christopher IL, 1320-33.
1320 New capitulation— the clergy free from taxes and temporal jurisdiction— exclusion of foreigners from all offices, spiritual and temporal —no war, taxation, or laws, without the consent of parliament— yearly meeting at Nyborg.
I
Denmark, Norway, Sweden, i Prussia.
Haco
VII.
Birger.
From 1318 the Russians invade Finland— Birger deposed, goes to Denmark—d.
1321. 1319 First general assembly of the nation at the Mo-rastein, near Up-sala—it is composed of nobles, burgesses, and landholders.
Complete formation of the aristocracy.
Magnus Smek, 1319-74, aged 3 years—son of duke Eric, brother of Birger, and of In-gelurg, daughter of
toon oi	Haco vn.
' 1332 Scho-
wen, Bleking, Matth. Ketilmundson, • ~ ’	guardian of the king-
dom—d. 1337.
The king cannot dispose of any fief, nor
and Haland lost to Sweden. Count Gerhard, of Holstein, seizes north Jutland and JFuenen— other lords seize other provinces. The king baa only a part of Laland. The throne vacant for eight years. Waldemab IV. (Atter-
nominate to any bishopric. The nobility exempt from taxes, and the kingdom governed by a council. The knowledge of East Greenland lost.
76—restorer Magnus divideS the
restorer of the kingdom.
1347 Esth-land lost to the German order.
EAonen, Haland, . and Bleking recovered from Sweden.
Conquest of Oeland and Wisby.
kingdom, reserving the chief authority for himself:
Haco	Eric XII.,
VIII.	eldest son,
second 1343-59, son, 1343 aged 6 yra. -80, aged 5 yrs.
\Haco takes his father prisoner.
L r*
gSoccessful war with Norway, Sweden, V and the Hanse towns.
Haco VIII.,
elected king of Norway 1362—of Sweden, 1363—marries, 1363, Margaret, daughter of
Waldemar IV.
Magnus set at liberty.
Tbs Swedes invite Albert, Smeks slater’s eon, who, by tbe assistance of tbe Hanse towns, displace Haco.
Albert, 1364-89.
1365 Albert defeats 1369 The	Haco at Enkoping in
Hanse take	Upland — Magnus
Copenhagen.	prisoner.
1371 Return 1371 Is set free, and f ft Waldemar. Albert acknowledged.
•on of Margaret and third part or Haco, year* old—sue- the estates ofl
— . ' <r	toon	tbe nobles as
to Norway, 1380.	crown do_
1368 Rise of the nobles — league of Albert of Sweden, the Hanse towns, etc., against Waldemar, a who retires into Germany till 1371.
Margaret, 1387-1412,
qneen of Denmark and Norway—and of Sweden, 1388:
The Semiramis of the north.
1396 Eric of Pomerania successor to the throne.
Union of Oalmar, 1397-lS24_tA* _	,
monarchy elective—each of the three kingdoms DWeaen.
The
Teutonic
Order.
1309 The seat of the grand master is removed from Verdun to Marian-burg, which becomes the capital.
1321 Acquires Bii-tow and Lauenburg-
POLAND.
Wenceslas II., of Bohemia, 1300-1305-marries Rixa, d. of Premislas.
Vladislas IV. (Lok-tek), 1305-33—elected in Little Poland.
Doke Henby of Glo-gau reigns in Great Poland till 1309, when Vladislas unites the two, and is crowned at Cracow, 1320.
Long struggle with the Teutonic knights.
Casimib thb Great, 1333-70, aged 24 yrs.
1335 Cedes Silesia to Bohemia.
Peace of Vishegrad with Poland by which the order obtains Eastern Pomerania, Michelau, and Clum —ratified by the peace of Kalish, 1343.
War with the Lithuanians, still pagans, who defend themselves with great bravery.
1347
Eathonia, acquired by purchase from Denmark, becomes the seat of the master of Livonia.
Dantzic greatly improve*, and carries on a
flourishing trade.
Its amber fishery.
1350 The Lithuanians subdue Bed Russia.
civilisation introduced.
Vines planted at Tokay. 1350-52 Second expedition to Naples— give* up that kingdom.
1352 Louis, with Casimir, conquers Red Russia cedes it to Poland, with the right of again redeeming it.
1355 Masnovia a Polish flef. , 1366-58 First war with
Samogitia wrested from Lithuania-ratified 1404.
Gotbland conquered, and ceded to the order by
Hungary.
Andrew tlie Venetian. 1301 Extinction of the house of Arpad. Wenceslas III. of Bohemia, 1301-4, aged 12 year*—married to Elizabeth, d. of Andrew. Charles Robert, son of Charles, set up from 1295 as king—he comes into Hungary 1300. 1304 Wenceslas goes into Bohemia.
Otto V. of Bavaria. Stephen V., nephew, 1305-8—flees the kingdom.
HouseofNaples Anjou, 1308-86.
Charles Robert, 1308-42, marries—1318, Beatrice, daughter of tbe emperor Henry VII.
1319-42 The king holds no pa liament/or twenty-three years. 1322 Dalmatia conquered from Venice.
1330	Coronation of bis son Louis.
1331	Unfortunate expedition against Wallachia.
1335 Congress at Vishegrad of the kings ot Hungary, Poland, and Bohemia—Hungary mediator of tbe differences between these powers and the Teutonic order.
Subject to the Khan of Kip-chak.
1339	Treaty between Poland waA Hungary, b\ which Louis, son of Casimir’s sister and tbe king of Hungary, is declared successor to tbe Polish throne, to tbe prejudice ot the Piasts, reigniog in Silisia and Masovta.
i Lotus the Great,
1340	Conquest of Red 1342-82, aged 16,
Russia.	becomes one of the great-
est princes of the middle ages—marries Margaret,
1347 First written laws daughter of the emperor promulgated at Vis- Charles TV, licza.
1349 Podolia and Lithuania conquered.
humiliating yoke of the
Tartars of the Golden Horde.
The grand dukes, and other princes, are compelled to visit the Khan, to obtain the confirmation of their dignities.
Novgorod and Lithuania independent.
1318 Moscow the residence of'the grand dukes, instead of Wladimir. 1320 The grand duchy of Wladimir, with several dependent principalities, is conferred by the Khan on
Ivan Danilo-
V1TSCU.
The Lithuanians capture Vothynu 1318, Kiovia 1320, some other pieces, aud all the territory south of the Dnieper, 1840.
Divisions among the Russian princes
leave the country open to the attacks of the Lithuanians, Poles, and others.
Couveutlon nobles aud Louis, king of Hungary-the noblee, clergy, and citizens free from taxes; the king to be content with the old Imposts, levied fifty years previously, with the
1359-69 Conquest of the principalities lying on the Danube, between Hungary and the Greek empire.
Moldavia, 1859—Servia, 1865-Bulgaria, 1866—Bosnia, 1889-Waliachia, 1809, again subdued.
Louis protects the landed interest, trade (liberties of tbe Nuremberg merchants),encourages scieuce and literature (University of Quinque Kcdetia, 1882) —Improves his finances—hereditary right established—expulsion of the Jews.
to Magdeburg, and establishment of a single high court of J ustice at Cracow.
Casimir elevates the citizen class—builds new cities and churcheB-patroni zes the arts and sciences (1847 University of Cracote)—especially protects tbe peasantry(heuce called the peasant king).
1370 Extinction the royal race the Piasts.
Louie thb Gbbat, king of Hungary and Poland, 1370-82—coronation at Oracow-Louis returns U> Hungary, 1371, leaving his mother to govern in Poland.
1372,78, Second war with Veni ce-fouis's authority now extends from the west coast of theflack sea llo the Adnatw; and from these two seas to the fall of the 11 cichsel Into the Baltic. With tbe Turks he doea not grapple.
1877 Red Russia reunited to Hungary.
J	1378-81 Third w ^
| Venice — peace of Turin — Louis places Charles the Little, I of Durazso, on the throne 1 Naples.
1882 Upon the death of Louis. Ills daughter Jfaria, betrothed to 5ioSmund of Luxemburg, electorate of Brandenburg, should, according to treaties, succeed in Hungary and Poland, but.
n parliament and laws.
1888 The Foies declare for the younger daughter, Hxnwio (d. 1899), betrothed to William of Austria-she is crowned 1884, and marries, 1386, JageT-o.
House of Jagellos, 1386-1572.
Vladibi.as V. (Jag. Ilo), 1886-1434, grand duke of Lithuania— embraces Christianity and Is baptised. Lithuania, with Volhynia and part of Bussia, Incorporated. 1387 All tbe Lithuanians, the last European pagans, are baptised.
1387 Moldavia, and 1890 Bed Bussia, lost to Poland.
1885 InsurrecUon end election of Charles the Little of Kaplcs (great-grandson of Stephen V.), who cornea Into Hungary, hut Is assassinated, 1386 — Elizabeth, the widowed queen, and Maria, are made prisoners by Charles's adherents.
SlOISHUND or Lojihbubo, 1387-1437- he frees hla consort, 1387-coronation.
A disastrous reign—Sigis-mund has to sustain tbe first war against the Turks— terrible defeat, 1396, before Nieopolis, and sli months’ flight of the king.
Bulgaria to the Porte. Internal broils-factions declare for Vladislas of Naples, for Albert of Austria, and the king of Poland.
Russia.
Greek Empire.
Andbonicus
PALiEOLOGUS
—1328.
Russia conti- ___„ „ _
Dues under the	^ar
of the Cata-
Wallachia subdued,1342.
1347 First expedition to Naples, to revenge the death of his brother and take possession of the kingdom.	--	------—,,
r- ,.	.weakened by lutes- ukeB UD anng
Italian manners andUnt divisions, lose,^ainathlro 1363
Ills daughter .,	Imarries John
The Lithuanians, PaUxologus, who
>1 hv lntauJ.L.1__	*	_____
Ians, or great company, under Roger de Floir. 1
Ottoman Empire.
Othman,—
He increases his possessions —fortifies towns and eastles, and renounces the pastoral life for tbe baths and palaces of his infant capitals. The knights of St. John of Jerusalem established at Rhodes, which emerges into fame and opulence— lasts, 1310-1523.
1320-27 Dis-
Orkhan, 1326-60 — conquest of Bithyniatmd Prusa, which he makes his
ous petty Khan,- 1304.
...	Khanian era,
chiefs, mostly ioih March,1302.
descended g.) Moham-
from Jangez MED KhuDA' * bandkh, Khan. JJljuituKhan 1305-17. Persecutes tbe Sunies, 1307.
putes and civil war between the emperor and hia son Michael — the latter obtains: 1. half the empire;
2.	a coronation, 1323;
3.	the abdication of the old emperor, 1328—dies, 1332.
Andbonicus, the younger, 1328-41. JOHNPALiEO-logus,1341-91, aged nine yean.
John Cantacu-
regent, but attacked and proscribed by Apo-eaucus, the great admiral, by the empress Anne, ot Savoy, and by the patriarch, John of Apri, he assumes the purple, defeats bis enemies, and gains Constantinople.
JohnCanta-
cuzene,1347
1848 War with
the Genoese—do-feat of the Greeks and Venetians, 1362-peace In favour of Genoa,
1380 Dimitry lvanovitsch, grandson of Ivan Danilo-vitsch, gains a victory over the Tartars, near the Don, whence he is surnamed Donshoi; but the Tartars still maintain their power— they sack Moscow 1382—Dimitry implores their clemency, and sends his son to them as hostage.
1389 Timur subdues the khan of Kip-chak, and advances to tbe Volga,
1395 Timur again overruns Kipchak and Russia—devastates Moscow and Azov.
capital.
Conquest of
Nice, 1330, and Nicomedia, 1331.
1341 Firot encounter of the Venetians with the Turks the Archipelago.
1336 Academy at Prusa.
Timur-leng (the Lame), Tamerlane, of Turk descent, but allied to the family of Jangez, son of a petty chief, born ntKesh.
1326.
Forma alliance* with the Greek emperor, and marries Theodora, daughter of John Canta-cuzene.
New organisa-tion of the army, recruited by captive Chris-
1341 First passage of the Turks into Europe, invited to assist John Cantacuzene.
Jobs
Pal^o-
LOGU8
alone,
1355-
91.
1353 ■ Establishment of
Europe—conquest of Gallipoli, the key ot the Hellespont.
Murad I. (Amu-rath), 1360-89 — conquers Thrace, St makes Adrianuple his capital, 1362.
Janizaries.
Tartary. | Persia.
Divided among vari-
.) Abu Sayid, 1317-~~—a brave prince, but ’' i reign ich distracted by rebellions.
Acquires political power, and is elected Khan of Mawer-al-nehr, ot Transoxiana.
Timur founds a new empire, and makes
Samarkand its capital, 1369-1405.
governmenc- a military despotism—division of the empire into great pasha-lies, the pashas being invested with the highest civil and military authority-the grand vizier at the head of affaire—he presides In the divan— the Koran thefoundallon of law—the Mufti head of the spiritual power, at whose command the sultans ere frequently displaced and executed.
1373 Treaty of the Greek empire with Murad—the Greeks retain only Constantinople, Thessalonica, part of the Mo -rea, and one or two islands.
1382 Conquest of Natalia , r .	1 by the gradual subjection
MANUEL of the lesser Turkish emirs
Reduces
Karsim, Khorasan, & Kandahar,
II.,1391 -1425.
Discord, civil wars, and distress qf the Greeks.
“ of tlielesser Turkish emirs 1387 Great victory over the Caramon Ogli, in Cilicia. Conquest of part of Albania.
1389 Victory over the Christiana (Waliachians, Albanians, Dalmatians, and Hungarians), at Bassova, in Servia—Murad Is slain
Bayezid (Bajazet), Ilderim, or The Lightning, 1369-1403.
1895 Constantinople Invested by sea
Khan of Persia.
Ghazan
1300
THE POWER
OF THE
MONGOLS
DECLINES.
10.	) Abpa Khan, 1336, five months.
11.	) Musa Khan, two months.
12.)Moham-med Khan, 1336-38.
13.	) Sakti Beg, d. ot Mohammed Khodaban-
deh, 1338.
14.	) Tehan Tymub, and
15.	) Suli-MAN Khan.
lfi.) Mus-kiboan,1344.
The sultan mere pageant In the hands of the emirs, who again become Independent In their several princlpall-
Sultans of Bagdad.
1.)Sheikh Hasan.
300,000 persona die of a pestilence at Tabriz.
2.	) Sultan Awei6—con quera Azer bijan.
3.	) Sultan Hasein,1374
4.	) Sultan |Ahmed,1384.
Invades Persia, 1384— Ispahan taken, and tbe
Sle massacred—pyra-of human heads,
1387.
1388 War with the Kipchak, and western and northern Tar-tars.
1393 Again invades Persia, takes Bagdad, and expels Sultan Ahmed.
1395 Ahtneu returns, but ia again expelled, 1399 and takes refnge with Bajazet.
1396
Kipchak and
Russia overrun—Moscow taken.
1398 Invades Hindustan —plunders Delhi.
1896 Great victory of Ni-copolis over Sigismund of Hungary—the army eon slsled of Hungarians,
Waliachians, Germans, and HOOO French.
1399 Protects Sultan Ahmed and Kara Yunef.
1399 Returns to Persia— retakes Bagdad—invades Syria, and threatens Egyp t.
1325
1350
1U
20
Table x.
SYNC II RONISTICAL TABLES OF
The Fifteenth
1400
Portugal.
Burgundians.
John I.—1433.
Wars with Castile.
Improves the administration of the laws and government.
1411 Peace with Castile.
1415 Ceuta taken.
FRENCH AND ENGLISH WARS—HENRY V. WARS OF THE TWO ROSES.
Spain.
Aragon. Martin V.,
Castile. Henry III.,
-1410.	—1400.
The Mohammedans still possess Granada.
1409 Gains Sicily, as the heir ment of
Of hl8 son.	merclal treaty.
Dreadful trou- :JoHN „ hies on the king s	1406-54.
Scotland.
Robert,—1405. 1400 Hemy IV. invades Scotland.
Tlie Scots, under Douglas defeated at Ham.
Percy and Hotspur.
Embassy to Ti-
and settle- 140o Capture of prince James by the English, James I., 1406.
The duke of Albany continues regent.
1419 Commence ment of the !
death respecting	.
the succession One year old-|C°ntest between the High-,me succession. hu mo>tl|er and| landers and Saxon popula-
1411 Nine Rrbi- uncle, Ferdinand} *!on— defeat of Donald ot 11 nine aroi who U12 b the Isles, by the earl of.1/ur, trators chosen comeg	ofi at Harlaw, 1411.
to elect a king, Aragon, guard 1- Hlt Vn	st An
1 they choose an8,	J
Maritime dig- 'pEED1NAHD o( The ,t,k coveries of the Castile, 1412- character of 16—he is ac- the king knowledged in leaves the go-Spain and Si- vernment in the bands of
Portuguese,
under Henry, third son of the king, by Philippa, d. of the duke of
Lancaster.
cily.
Alfonso V., 1416-56.
1421 Alfonso is
1420 Madeira colonised.
1425 1422 Alfonso, the! adoPted j>y poking's natural son,! anna °‘ Naples created duke of “®h®r,etrafs-Braganza—from	^ie king
The seat of government removed from Coimbra to Lisbon.
Edward I., 1433-38.
1433 Cape Bojader dou-
him the reigning family is descended.
Alfonso V., 1438-81, aged six yrs.
1450
1474 Pretensions l i 0 ;
^ J®	and fnd Johanna! agam> 1455—total de- f459 °efeat
1475
invades Naples and is made prisoner, 1433, lie is released, 1455—he overcomes his ene-
Don Alvaro de Luna
Civil broils with Don Henry, infante of Aragon.
1419 Death of Albany —Murdoch, bis son, regent.
The Scotch assist the French
against England.
1423 King James is released — endeavours to repress disorder and improve the civilisation of the kingdom.
1425 Arrest of the late regent, the earls Douglas, Angus, March, etc.
England.
House of Lancaster.
Henry IV., 1399-1413.
1401 Owen Glendower rebels, as do, 1403, the Percies, and earl Mortimer, who claims the throne—they are defeated in the battle of Shrewsbury.
The riches, pride, ambition, and luxury of the clergy, turn men’s attention to the ahuses of the church : non residence— uegligenceof duty —the poor not provided for.
The followers of Wlckliffe greatly increase. Persecution of the Ixtllards throughout this country.
1412 Wickliffe's bones burnt—Sir John Old. castle burnt, and many of his followers, 1417.
Attempts to humble the nobility.
tent of tbe|1437 ConspIraey of nobU, Castilians. against the king, headed by Walter, earl of Athol, and
1430 Continued favour
to Alvaro,
LU1UC9 JJIO CI1C"	i
mies, and unites and	,1436 War with Eng-
the crowns of q^ntdiscon-, land Naples and the two Sicilies,
1443.	Isa- At I Sir Hob. Graham—the king
1AOQ Dr	c 144° A 'Var0, 18 murdered at Perth. ‘
1428 Reform of declines in	T TT ,
thejustitiu, favour—is	James II., 143/.
condemned . ,®lr 'Y'11- Cric}>lnn Rnd Sir
,	, lAlex. Livingstone regents —
and executed,|their dissensions cause much 1453.	trouble—feudal animosities
prevail.
1442 Law to prevent HENRY IV.,I the king from dis-	1454-65,and 1440 Murder of Wil-
.. . ■	14gg_-j-4> liam, earl of Douglas,
and his brother.
Jo,,s n„ 1458-	struggle.
/9, king of A a-
varre, by mar- insurrection of1444 The king takes ’ J	the barons—the •>	B
Tinge Since, k. is deposed by 1425. Ferdi- the Cortes. '
Parliamentary Henry V., 1413-22. authority and popular government prevail
1415 Conspiracy of Henry le Scrop, the earl of Cambridge, and Sir Tho. Grey.
under the three Henries ofLancaster
Henry VI., 1422-60, aged nine months.
The duke of Bedford, brother of Henry V., regent— Gloucester, the good duke Humphrey, and their brother, pro-tectorof England during his absence in France. Dispntes between the d. of Gloucester and cardinal Winchester,1426. 1429 Coronation of the king.
The church is in possession of above half the great landed property of England, besides tytlies, personal goods, etc. —the clergy are superior In wealth and power to any other order in tbe state.
France.
C&petlans—House of 1
CharlesVl.(the The kingdom Beloved) — tornbyth 1422, factions of the houses of B u gundy and O leans.
Civil Wab, 1410—both parties intrigue with Henry V. of England—the Parisi -favour tlie Burgundians, who are i Joined by the infamous queen, 1417.
1418	Dreadful massacre of the Armignacs (Orleanists) in Paris.
1419	Reconciliation—but tbe murder of the duke of Burgundy in the king’s presence occasions
Direful troubles.
1415 Henry Invades France, takes Harfieur, and gains The battle Of Aglncourt (Oct. 25), with 10,000 men against 100,000-takes Rouen and all SormanJy—advances upon Paris —Philip, the young duke of Burgundy, upon his lather’s murder, goes over, with tbe queen, to tbe English, and offers Henry the French crown.
1417 Henry's second Invasion.
Treaty of Thotes, 1420, by which Henry V. marries Catherine of France, and becomes immediately regent of that kingdom, and successor to Charles VI., to the exclusion of tbe Dauphin and all the royal family.
1422 Henry’snd Charles both die this year, when
Henry VI. is proclaimed at Paris king of France and England,
under the regency of the duke of Bedford, who maintains the power acquired by the Enghsh, with much success-victories of Crevant, 1423, and Verneuil 1424 ; the tatter over the united forces of France and Scot/nnd-the earls of Douglas and Iiuclian, in French pay, both slain-Charles retains only Bour-ges (the little kmg of Bourges)-the duke of Gloucester marries Jacqueline, of iiatnault, which leads to a rupture with Burgundy.	V
Warwick, Salisbury, and Talbot, renowned warriors.
1428 Orleans, after holding out seven months, is about to capitulate when it and France are saved by the sudden appearance of Joan of Are the maul of Orleans, which at once turns the cide of affairs In favour of Charles -after assisting in many victories, Joan is taken prisoner, condemned executed as a witch, 1431.	'
FRANCE
H0BBIBLY
DEVAS-
TATED
BY
ENGLISH
WABS.
1429
Charles VII.'
attempt to gain Paris.
The English by degrees lose all their French conquests except Calais.
Truce with France, 1444.
The fame of the Portuguese discoveries ipreads over Europe., ind gives an impulse :o maritime enterprise.
1460 Death of Henry — navigation languishes.
Guinea discovered,
nand, bastard son of Alfonso, succeeds iu
Naples.
1458-73 Continual wars with
1460 Union of Sicily and Sardinia with Aragon.
Anarchy.
Alfonso,
1465-68.
War between the two brothers, till the death of Alfonso, 1468.
Henry declares his
the government upon:*4^* Jack Cade (self-called Mortimer) heads one, which en- disarmedaud pardoned, himself.	camps on Blackheath and defeats the king’s forces—enters)
Earl of Douglas, lieu ' London-i8 di8Per8ed-Cade executed, tenant of the king-;ff4"‘raJ i'“°*tcntprevails,a. respec ts both church and dom, successful againstCivU war of the two roses till 14-85-Richard, duke of York,
e-*-- ’’ '• ’	desc*nd«<t nAi.m.iif, fmm	tit •. t*.,..i.	and maternally from his
the English, between
1450 Parliament
Edinburgh.
the king and
1452 The king stabs , Douglas—his five bro-Isabella thers flee to arms—
>t forgotten.
descended paternally from Edward Ill’s fourth
second son, is the bead of the house of York, or white rose ; next to Henry VI., the d. of Somerset assumes to be tlie head of the house of Lancaster, or red rose!
The duke of York’s claims are revived by his popular virtues, the inslgnifi-:ance of Henry, the arrogance mid violence of Margsret, by tlie loss of France and long dishonour brought to tlie English arms, and by the attempt to govern “	- parliament—the birili of Edward, Prince of Wales, 1453 leads to an
imoieaime struggle.	1414, the first national standing army, ami of a
Impeachment of Somerset-Henry declared incapable by the House of Lords permanent tax for their support, become powerful
1453 End of the French and English wars, without any formal peace.
The spirit of feudalism, which had been de-cliumt' !rom the time of Charles V., almost entirely sinks under tlie power acquired by this and tbe next monarch, who become absolute. The people, weary of civil Btrife, and tlie exactions of the nobles, refuse to second their efforts for the preservation of freedom, although in these the injuries of the people
Pntn- bio	wiv.o iicc iu ai uru	The English retain Guernsey, Jersey, and Calais.
loata hlS successor,: truce, 1454—in arms 1455 Battle of St Albans, gained by the Yorkists-1466 Richard displaced.
-	------ . 1	'14AQ	tliA Vaarlrltatei	I ..JU.	*
Castile, and con-l . sequent war—hem^ is compelled to 1169 Marriage of Ferdinand of Ara-
renounce them! wll“ IsaMla of Ca3tiu'
tobespurious. feat, ’ and flight of Douglas into England.
Ferdinand,
1474.
1476-79 Internal broils.
Isabella of Castile, sister, 1474-1504.
1476 Institution of the Herman dad. Alliance o the Castilian cities against the nobles.
by the peace of Alcacebas, 1479.
John II.,
1481-95.
The spirit of maritime discovery revives.
1481 Union of Aragon and Cas-
Parliament o/FERDINAND 11.^1479-1516,
rS	“Isabella,-im,
administration of *m!j's titter l° EU,iora' Ferdi' the laws—power,	" s" r‘
of the noblesTHE aristocracy humbled, abridged—strug- and the domains of the gle between them crown reduced, 1480.
and the king.
The aristocracy humbled.
The duke of Braganza, leader of
the aristocracy
for power.
House of York.
Edward IV., 1461-83, son of Richard, duke of York.
Bioody battle of Tow ton (60,000 Lancastrians, 40,000 Yorkists) gained by Ed- Bgain8t Louis—battle of Montlheiy
t/7ara —37.000 kneliMlimen Klftin — 11 anra anA Uavnavat I..*- a_r 11	11.1	. ^	;
1456 The dauphin, Louis, again revolts—retires to the court of Burgundy.
Louis XI., 1461-83. j 1464 War, called for the public good,
i o,(Wl.. i— v—	-mvfKTw * "iLisinj gaineu uy r*i-
. 3.,,00° Englishmen slain-Ilenry and Margaret flee into Scotland—1464 rnvade England, routed in The battle of Hexham.
Edward Offends the earl of Warwick (king-maker) by his marriage with F.Iiz.
—become
,. „ T	, „	146<J Warwick and the duke of Clarence are banished-
14o9 Invasion of Eng-| reconciled to Margaret.
1470	Warwick, under the name of jHenry VI., assumes supreme authority—Edward gains,
1471	Th
James III., 1460.
Capture of Roxburgh aud Berwick.
1467 Acquisition of the Orkney Islands.
1479 War with England — conspiracy of nobles— they murder Cochrane, earl of Mar—make the kiDg'
» of Ba
n, , .	, „	- -......^ -........ -Warwick slain—victory of ------r>——r-™.*..
Iewkesbury follows—the Lancastrians entirely defeated, and prince Edward ia-.~ xxt l *	r • i i
slain—//enry VI. dies in the Tower.	’	* co	14/O War_ between Louis, leagued
fAb. 1471 Printing in England—Caxton.
Edward V., 1483, 9th of April-26th of June, aged 14,
Richard protector—the king and bis brother, the duke of York, are murdered in the Tower.|
prisoner—refuse to act
1480 77ie inquisition inlr oduced\
—(firat auto de fa, 1484, at Seville).	•	.	.	, -
Ximi.nks, bishop of Toledo, grand in- a88ln8t V'C ,DVadlnF qulsitor and cardlnal-d. 1605. I army of England, 1482 The last war with Gra-1 which takes Berwick, nada begins.
1500
“the nobles, be- Conquest of Granada, 1492.1??7 Con8P>™cy of no-
d and	bjr Gonzalo DK Co»w>va. with aoom, Dies—h’"- «>»’-
others.
Progressive discoveries along the coast of Africa, till
Infantry and 10,000 cavalry,
This glorious event, a counterbalance JaMES IV., 1487, 80n. o the loss of Constantinople, consoll-l
dates tlie Spanish monarchy, and raises1 __________7
it to high estimation in Europe.	ocotlana enjoys a
Vasco de Gama doubles the Gape of Good
Discovery of America, by Columbus, 1492.
Edict by which the Jews are compelled to be baptised, or to leave Sp< ' 800,000 depart.
1495 Ferdinand joins the league of Venice against France.
Rorvo uoa 1496 Takes the title of Catho-Hope,1498, and Zlc_marriage of the infant|lf
reaches India. 1 Joanna, with Philipof A».ci!Wg.
son of tranquillity.
1496 James assists Perkin Warbeck — truce with England.
University of Aberdeen.
Richard III., 1483-85, usurper, brother of Edward IV., aged thirty.
Buckingham's revolt and execution—Jane Shore's penance.
1485	Henry, earl of Richmond, lands at Milford Haven.
I e of Bo s w or th Field, in which Richard Is defeated and slain.
House of Tudor—Union of the two Boses.
Henry VII., 1485-1502, aged 29, grandson of Owen Tudor, by the widow of Henry V., and son of Edmund, earl of Richmond, by Margaret, heiress of the Somerset line-he marries Elizabeth, sister of Edward V.
Gunpowder made in England.	Bodyguards appointed.
1486	Imposture of Lambert Symnel—he invades England—defeated and made a turnspit.
Henry aids Maximilian In order to keep Flanders from the French.
1493 Perkin Warbeck assumes to be Richard, duke of York-ls favoured bv a8 r, 'l!.8 ^ng £rance’ and °“>ere-1496 invades England, is defeated on Blackheath. and beheaded.	B
1494 Attempts made to reform the church.
The Lollards persecuted.
1495 Poyning's act for Ireland-its parliament independent, till 1782.
1497 Cabot makes discoveries in America.
1499 Unjust execution of the earl of Warwick, the last of the Plantagenets-llenry reduces the power and turbulence of the nobles—leads them to cultivate a t«st« for peaceful grandeur and domestic comforts—strengthens tlie royal authority—enforces the laws—enconrageH navigation
followed by the peace of Conflans, in which Louis promises all, hoping to evade all,
1466 Louis rashly visits Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who compels him to march with him against the Liegeois, and to make a disadvantageous peace.
with the Swiss, and Charles of Bi gundy—Louis buya off the English. 1476 Charles, defeated in the battles of Granson and Morat, rushes od his fate at Nancy, where he is slain, 1477.
Artois and Burgundy united to the French crown.
Charles VIII., 1483-98.
1484 Assembly of the States-Gene-ral—remarkable for its bold eloquence and liberal sentiments.
1487 War with Maximilian—peace, 1489.	^
1491 Bretagne united to the crown by the king’s marriage with Anne.
France was now consolidated into a great and powerful kingdom : the feudal system — at an end. Having conquered herself, she prepared to carry her arms into other co.... tries, and to contest the prize !of glory and power upon the theatre of Europe.
1494 Charles’ expedition into Italy, where he conquers Naples, but is compelled to evacuate the country.
Louis XII. (called the father of his people), 1498-1515.	1
Agnes Sorel, mistress of Charles, inspires him with sentiments of honour, which overcome his natural indolence.
1444 Marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou—Suffolk, the queen, and Winchester have the chief management of affairs— mi -n they conspire against Gloucester—he is arrested, 1447—dies ^ " e “r a9m aHc sanction suddenly (? murdered).	| of Bourges, 1438.
1447 Suffolk’s unpopular administration—he is impeached by establishes the liberties of the Ga-the Commons, 1550—banished—murdered.	I	liciau church,
Popular insurrections.	|l«0 The Dauphin (Ixmis XI.) rebels, but is
SWISS CONFEDERACY.
Germany.
Albert of Austria, ] SwlL“iaA!'"'_ —1309.	Tlie Swiss towns
,	.	„ I rise into import-
Albert plans to uniU*,HtlC€> dur, rtJ,e
------ * Thuringta twelfth ceiltury .
in tlie thirteenth WENCESLA8, k. of Bo- l^e house hernia, till 1306.	and
Rudolf, of Austria, '
1306-7.
Henry otLuxemburgh,
1308-13.
The emperor’s son, John, king of Bohemia, i310.
1310 Goes into Italy —is making preparations against Robert of Naples, but dies suddenly in Tuscany,
1313.
Albert, obtains a great ascei.d-sney over them. Albert oppresses the Swiss towns —Bends bailiffs, who by their exactions drive them into revolt 1307 Staufiaeher
RISE OF THE MEDICI.
Italy.	[^Naples. Sicily. |
Amid the struggles of thej jjouge Guelfs and Ghibelines, of j	^pjou.
tyrants and republics, Italy '(Jharlf.8 II becomes the cradle of mo-| —1309. dern literature and improv- j ing civilisation.	|1808 Caro-
'kmgWctlid
137-5.
Boccaccio, d. soiT, is caHed to the throne of Hungary.
Louis of Frede- William Tell Bavaria, BIC of i shoots Gisler. 1314-47. Austria, Sei»eral insur-1314-30 ,'ectl0n*« 1308.
Ten years confederacy : °f Schwite, i’ri, and The empire is \ ^"terwaid.
distracted by civil 1?09 Uenry r{7- con;
. F . . Amis tlie rights and independence of the
Struggle between the fa-; milies of Della Torre "jL,	(Guelfs) and Visconti Robert
Meichtai Of Um! (Ghibelines), at Milan-- (^e Good), terwaid, swear; Matteo Visconti establishes 1309-43. £rr.r‘ofheth, Wm-lf, 1313.
c&utous.
Robert the Good acquires grest power in Lombardy, as head of the Guelfs, and aspires to the dominion of all Italy.
1310 Conspiracy of Tie-1 polo, and creation of the council of ten at Venice. !
war and double ; independence of the Robert becomes podesta of Florence— elections; while ' a'dstate, or Forest	is proscribed by Henry VII., who
its great prin- .'“nt0"!1,	.	visits Italy, and is joined by Genoa
cipalities are < 13tlr*	ths"*- “nd Sicily,
much reduced by Battle of Mor- 1314-15 General war be-! partitwns and g art cm, 1315. between the Guelfs and 1317 Robert subdivisions. thirteen hundred Swiss Ghibelines.	j senator ol
|foot against twenty-1	] t>
thousand Austrian ca-!	,	1 Home.
; valry — the flrst mo-'1316 Castruccio, lord of
1318 Lord of
ms Six jam’*!-™ tan Am-,	1328- Oema.
triaandtk, Sm«.	1319 Fio.l e.t.bli.hm.ntof
13-2 Frederic ofj Formation of j oligarchical government at Austria defeated| the Swiss con- : Janice.
& taken prisoner!	federary—
bv LOUIS’S gene- Lucerne Joins it ia32,!,0„.	,	.	. ,
ral Schwenner- tiuricK Glaris, 1330 John of Bohemia, as imperial go-mann	“nd	1351 i *er,lor of Italy, conquers Lombardy-
r,,,	j .	\i	recalled 1301—in Italy again 1333—be
Ihe pone declares the throne va-\ aband(msl or 8e„8 al, hi.Tord.hip. and cant, and claims the government of . Italu the Empire.	**
1324 Louis excommunicated by Successful league of Flo- \
John XXII.—appeals to a general retire and Venire againstj council.	,, Scala, lord of Verona. ]
1327 Louis invades Italy—his perfidy towards the Visconti and Pisans— coronation 1328—excommunicated—he is unable to effect any thing against Robert of Naples, and is compelled to return.
1338 Declaration of the Diet of 1339 Simon Boccanegra,' Joanna L, Frankfurt, that the pope had no | doge of Genoa.	\ 1343-82—
temporal power within the Empire.
Louis sides with the English in the
French war.
John of Bohemia killed in the battle of Crcssy.
House of Luxemburg.
Charles IV., kine of Bohemia, 1346-78.
The empire is offered to Edward IU. of England, who declines it—Gunther of Schwartzenburg is set up— dies the same year,
, marries An-
House
of
Aragon,
Frederic II.-1337.
1312
Leagues
with
Henry
VII.
against
Robert.
132$
Leagues
with]
Louis
against
Robert.
Peter
II.,
1337-42.
LOUI9,
1342-55.
1339 Rise of mercenary	.
companies, Cundottieri. drew, brother
1342	Walter of Brienne,
duke of Athens, lord of, ^Jered, licence.	• 1345-the
1343	Commercial treaty be- nUeen 8U8_ tween Venice and the sul- pected of the tan of Egypt and Syria. r murder.
The great company of duke Guar-; atari levies contributions on all	,n T
countries — Sir John Ilawkwood, 134/-4J In-an Englishman, commands an- vasion of other with great military skill. ;	ofFBEDEBIC
1350-55 Furious naval war Hungary________: III.,
betw een Venice and Genoa. tbe q„een J 1355-77.
1350 The Vtaeonfi lords of Bologna, expelled— and of great power in Lombardy—	■	,
John, till 1349—his nephews :	restored,
Matteo-1356;	j 1349.
Bornobo.—1385; and
Galtaito, divide the state. io-ako c
submits to him for protec- _ i— i—.i	cond invasion
1356-8 First war between; Hungary and Venice.
Vniversity of Pavia.
1362 War between Pisa and Florence.
1367 League against the Visconti.
1354 Expedition into Italy—Florence	conQ iny|
tion from the Visconti—he becomes also lord of Pisa and Siena , j • —crowned at Milan.	01
1355,6, Promulgation of the gol- 1355 Conspiracy at Venice, den Bull—it fixes the prerogatives! and execution of the doge of the electoral college : to consist of Marino Faliero. seven electors—the electoral terri-' toriea are declared unalienable, and to descend to the eldest son.
Bohemia, Silesia, etc. incorporated with the empire.
1363 Wkxckklas. son	Austria acquires the
«,f Charles, cmwned Tyrol, 1363. kine of Bohemia.
Flourishing period of the Hanseatic league.
1364 Foundation of Carlsbad-1366 of The University of Vienna.
1368, 9, Second expedition into Italy—he suffers Pisa to recover its liberty—is threatened at Siena—restores to Lucca its independence.
First German patent of nobility.	11370 New government in 1380 Joanna
1376 Wenceslas, king of the Romans. iYorence-strugglebetweenj adopts Louis, Wknceslas, 1378-1400.	I*« P?? and rich ^zeil8 d- ^ Anjou.
deposed, but reigns in Bohemia tlll! 13/2,3 Second war between 1419; a licentious and brutal monarch.
Confederations of the nobles and cities gonfaloniere of Florence in the south west of Germany—warn! —rise of the power of the between them, which the emperor House of Medici. endeavours to stay by confi/ling dis- Fierce wa>. heticeen yenice tncts to impartial bailiffs, Bnd form-,	an(j Qenoa	;ChaRLE8 II.,
ing confederations to maintain pub- 1379 Victory of Do].ia QTer! 1382-85. lie peace.	i Pisani at Pola—victory
1385	War between Aus-;	-	3
trio and Switzerland. , of Pisano and Zeno —
1386	Battle of Sempaeh peace of Turin, 1381.
1386 University of —Leopold of Austria de- f.	.
Heidelbery — 1388 feated and slain-lieroic y e ” * c * Predominates, of Cologne—1392 dentil of Arnold of Win- Glorious administration of the Al-of Erf unit.	Ashied.	bizj at Florence, 1381-1434-clilefs
13b9 Victorv at Xapbs, and of a moderate aristocracy, peace with 'Austria till ui *■'johu Qaleazzo, 1385-1402,
1394 The emperor, for his brutal con- sole lord of Milan, duct, is imprisoned by the people of 1391 Pisa falls under the Prague.	' yoke of the Visconti.
2	h	T-
Charles of Durazzo causes Joanna to be smothered, 1382.
LADI9LAUS,
1385-1414.
1390 Louis II. of Anjou, son of Ijouis I, maintains himself in Saples till 1400. The feudal system and aristocracy weakened by Ixadislaus.
Maria , 1377-1402.
1387
Maria
Martin,
the
younger son of ;
Martin ;
of j
Aragon, ' 1387-1409.
k
1
UNIVERSITIES FOUNDED
Church History and Popes.
wickliffe, REFORMER
The usurpation*, taxations, venality, and avarice of the court of Home, produce a general disaffection towards it—the clergy, pillaged upon every slight pretence, regard it as,an arbitrary oppressor; while a spirit hatred  prows UP among the laity against the papal tyranny, and the whole system of ecclesiastical independence,  Boniface VIII.—1303
Literature, Celebrated Men, etc.
accelerated work	during this century with
K™vUo? a^t	at'° of numerous universities
he uu^of ttv .despotian shakes  off “8 fetters,espouses liberty’ and proclaims the right of free enquiry ? 'UannerB of the better clause become *
universal founded at Lyons, Lenta 1300-
Christianity  
Unsuccessful disputes Christianity loses	‘•'«‘-Co-
Council of Paris 1303_ General councils
Bull Unam Sanctum, begin" to be re-garded at a Benedict XI., 1303-4. means of Chech-
vacancy for near ele. ZtST"^ ven months.	the popes
Clement V., 1305-14. From the death of The seat of the popes	viii
transferred to Avignon, the papal 1305-76—cardinal legates Power declines, at Rome.
1311 .	..	1321 The arch-
1311 if General council at bishop of York
jounced ,with
^aSKfiSa--
u,v,“- '-"“n. and Boethius) in the national; brary of Pans—the public library of Oxford consisted of a tracks kept Ju cheats under St. Mary's church
order  was accused of apostacy, profligacy, idolatry, and heresy—of denying Christ,
an^eVjor'Tffr upon  all  the countries of Europe enrichment ofTh'e papal treeiulyVe^B*0UI,, etc.  for  the
worshipping a cat-no direct evidence of tills, but the order had become useless, dissolute and sensual. The order has been clandestinely preserved to
by the abbey* on his road, and hunted with a pack of hounds from parish to parish.
* “'“—me public library  of Oxford co tracts, kept lu chests under St. Mary’s church.
Romance> poetry of the middle ages flourishes see page 24.	6
rwian literature i, fl,, fc* lh„ ^ „	;
nence in modern times.
The French predominate in the coUeqe of wdjnals, and the papal power becomes d pendent upon the French court.
The holy see vacant for above two years. John XXII., 1316-34,
,J.i\Florentines: Hurt., 1266-1321, father of modern Italian poetrv —
fnd^th^fi \3<r4’7f ’ fevi?er of ancient learning, Ad m founder collector of any con-SZSitF °\ anc1,ent bterature—Boccaccio, C 1 »	?*,er of mo<lern Italian prose.
oacchctti, follower of Boccaccio, ab. 1400.
Greek literature—B arla a m teaches Greek, which JmsnV0"*	t0 Petrarch> 1335-Leon-
riUS, patronised by Boccaccio and Petrarch, lec-
MlSJS0* t0meuat Fl0r®UCe-EMMANrAL ChRY-soleras, first public teacher of Greek at Florence,
Italy take, the lead of all other nation, in the
study of ancient literature.
®Jleek ^S*ter* ~ Thomas Magisteb, 1320 — prn KnELiir	CalixtubXantho-
PULus ; Maximus Planudes, 1350-Nicephobus Gbegobas ; John Cantacuzene, 1370—Constan TINU8 HaBMENOPULUS, 1320-80.
Scholastic and Mystic philosophy. *. p.ge
Doctrine of Aristotle established at Paris 1366.
m.&sSt2£SSt?2tiBza±
Padua-T Ten
lebub—Michael Cosenas-IIknbv Knighton, an Eng.'cion.
WbiC^fe-/a^/^ Z’VM "former,,
BiK.	I\ V370 5 d< 1387—tran^tea the
Bible, which he regards as the sole rule of taith—opposes the supremacy of the pope, his temporal power, indulgences, dispensations, relic, and saints; as well as transubstantiate, purgatory, and other errors.
nis doctrines spread verv widely ni»mnJwx 4	,	.	^	—...o,Mg. canon,
all ranks.	^ y mong Natural sciences—Pietro di ALDANod.ab.1320
1324-38 Contests of the popes with Louis of Vilu^v frisn ‘?h “?tr°lof rrA,BN0LU M Bavaria—they claim temporal power over of win«-_l	m?}3 ; the ^ who*l,*tilIed spirits
the empire 1328 CrusadUpreachedLS dern iL,	r D1KI ^ LuZZI’ fatLer of mo-
• «“-«?£ fettlSS!!8****'*P*
mcnoias K.—1330 The popes lose ground.	r r
Benedict XII., 1334-42.
1 ■nqVJ!n attfnipt,Dt0 refonn the	i	13W-60' ^"‘’coUeVe of medicine andastrology at
lies of Th? CoTnnr^GwSe^/Md^,1- ^	wh08e	haa been	described.
ml!nGUt!ih}~ij^i0rdera °f Wr9 kind> tu' a"d<^mmon^umon
muU, and robbeiy prevail.	onbj^±up,v!r„p,,.‘.e^9tODe> “d «'» «iwr of life^'were l"he
ucru niiHtomy—UILBEBT A	_
sician, describes the leprosy-Guy of OiIuuac i renchman, improves surgei	1
—i, improves surgery, j13.15 Fir?‘ dissection of dead bodies at Bologna-I it is forbidden by Boniface.	°
Clement VI., 1342-52.
Ul« pmiOHopiier b object# maiuly aoughtior.
I ^bnowplM’. fwM.1113, “ Pul8. U “ld 10 b4M PMMMed lb.
OeoioA-my at Some, under Bieuri th. ^'Ii?,riiv“S—^1>EJE“ “ Ld>“>T0'»,« Obroniole, h,
i-t «f th. Tribuu,;,i3«^“th’eT	,°r“’ !,r ?? *»130^	..- —
Xab"it~'iolen“ -* “**” «*•
Innocent VI., 1352-62.
1354 Rienzi killed in a tumult—Alber-noz, cardinal legate, restores the papist dominion, 1354-60-r-dies 1367.
\
Ubban V., 1362-70, at Avignon—embellishes the city of Rome—lie presents the
riffhf arm 77.*«— A_____•	.	4X1 u
. T7 *“v V1 -urvmt—ne preseiits the right arm of llwmas Acquinas to Charles
y, of EV/7Ti/»s> «« .l:*.a	i> .
worship,
W",W* ^vyuimuf vo xjnarie*
France as an object of religioua
Gbegoby XI., 1370-78—he transfers the seat of the pontificate from Avignon to Rome, whither he journeys with great pomp.
The great schism, 1378-1429.
Ubban VI., 1378-UIr —acknowledged in the empire, Bohemia, Hungary, and England.
Cfement VII., 1378 ;94—acknowledged in France, Sjtain, Scotland, Sicily, § Cyprus.
n7,v,7,V *” .V’ “,8MJr> OI the House of Anjou— Rainulph Higden, polyclironicon, to 1327; trans-ated mto English verse by John de Trevisa~im Chronique de St. Denys/ collected by Gulielmm deBangts (d. after 1301)—1309 Joinville, ‘ Hist.
13m pVU,8 r°n1(!?AB v’ Hobneck (d. before 1318) Chronicle in Rhyme, of 80,000 verses, the first historical German writer (?)—Peteb ofDuis-bebq, earliest Prussian chronicle, 1326—Venetian YUJ?A,Qe5fthe Doge Dandolo,—1342—Villani u. id48, rlorentine—Fboissabt
fr°m ‘he fourteenth century, comes Into th?*ln£u ,T;.but becomes com.pted and eniumbered bv enceU	1H1 rl e8,a'id quibbles of commentators. Its influ^
Ini^Jns"1 ■'jereased by monarclis choosing for their chancel l«r?atad.<HUrnC *i,S doctore from school of Bologna. 187B It inlvJin^.	H'chard II., where U L L,
only in use lu the spiritual courta and the admiralty,
Babtolus and Baldus, about 1350, celebrated in nets, mix scholastic philosophy with civil law. J
Ak 11AA M.)________I______ .	-
'	—r—nuu um law,
Ab. 1400 as ordeals go out of use, judicial torture
EnilI°dlUCed l40 neftrK M the countrie«of Europe; Eog and an honourable exception, where it wL hardly ever known, and never law.
ism PMtly helps to lower the authority of the pontiffs Urban and Clement burl awfnl auathe-mes at each other-raise armies and preach crusades for their mutual destructlon-what one pope esteemed right, the other considered wrong, or profane; and the most sagacious catholic could not distinguish the true successor of St Peter.
Boniface IX., 1389-1404.
1391 The English forbid the clergy to cross the seas in order to obtain benefices, under pain of being declared rebels.
Benedict XIII. 1394.
1396 The kings of England and France unite against the popes.
1399 96ct of the Bianchi.
wc^asiss^jwat-j-^
iKErittSs?* °f
1358 The Jacquerie; great insurrection of the oea-•entry m I ranee—1381 Great insunection of^e peasantry in England, under Richard II., where they gradually escape from slavery.
1318 Spectscles Invented.
^“POWder in use at the battle of Cressv 1340 fita.
^the*northern *som^ Mtrono“« Oxford, constructs a map of ‘JSe?.1*6 ftr“t mllUn Ger““7 for the ““tfaefore of linen
Century.
THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
21
PERIOD OF GREAT DISCOVERIES—GUNPOWDER, PRINTING, AMERICA. REVIVAL OF LEARNING.
New Duchy Switzerland. [ IofBuboundy. 1
A In the last days * [of the feudal sys-Item, whan the 1 Kings of France |bad almost achle-(|ved the subjuga-Htlon of its proud llvassals,thedukes Sjof Burgnndy at-Jtalned sufficient power to dispute the field against
I868MarrlesMar. garet of Flan-! lawed Frederic,
Bsssssar; A»«n.io»...u
its Helvetian
John, king of France,grants the duchy to his third son, Philip (the Bold), 1363-1404.
Free Republic.
Under the out-
Gkrmany.
Robert (count palatine), elected, 1400-1410.
1401 Unsuccessful expedition against Milan.
1404 League of Man-back.
Bohemia.
Wenzel is deposed, but continues to reign in Bohemia till 1419.
1409 University of Leipsi
John Hubs.
First great move-
Hungary.
SlGISMUND,—1437.
1401 The king eighteen weeks blockaded—marries Barbara; countess of Cilley.
founded.
SlGISMUND of Josse of Luxemburg, Moravia, brother of Wenzel,
1411-37, king of Hungary.
rival emperor dies, 1411.
1413 Unsuccessful expedition to Milan.
Flanders,Artois,, the country of Burgundy, and the Niveruois.
John,
1404-19.
1416 Allies with England agnst.France. Philip (the Good), 1419-67.
Acquires, by various titles, the remaining provinces of the Netherlands.
1435 Peace of Arras. The duchy independent of France.
the Hussites.
Paid militia.
Extraordi-
nary
prosperity ot tbeae provinces,
at this time the richest and most fruitful country of Europe.
Flourishing period of woollen manufacture and general trade.
teacher,and refuse ; knowledge Sigismund. i Joan Zisca becomes | their leader, 1419-24.
^roubtea-ww of1431 Sigismund visits Italy	THE
—crowned emperor, by1 Eugenius IV., 1433,
The court of Burgundy celebrated for its pageants, tournaments, and splendour.
The richest and most powerful prince of Europe —rival of I.otus XI of France. !
CHARLE8 (the Bold), 1467-77.
possessions.
1422 War with Milan.
WaY of the Hussites,
1427 First imperial tax : who fly to arms upon
Zurich against Schwitz and Glaris respecting Toggenburg.
Zurich, at war with Austria, calls in the aid of the French, who obtain a victory at Basle, 1444.
Peace, 1446.
The Swiss join Iniabordimi- j France against tion of the Burgundy, 1474, Flemish cities. \ and gain, 1476,
I the victories of 1472Commes: Granson and enters the ! Morat, over
1415 Frederic, d. of Austria, outlawed.
1416 Sigismund at and London.
Paris
gence — goes the council Constance, under a safe-conduct from the emperor Sigismund; which is disgracefully violated, and[ Huss is burnt, 1415.
Jerome, of Prague, undergoes the . same fate.
1420 Sigismund becomes king of Bohemia.
ment in Germany! Zara.
1403 Vladislas of Naples crowned at
for the liberty of!
the church ; prin- '■‘05 Cities represented^
Italy.
The Medici in Florence.
John, the first banker of Italy, HOO-29, patron of the poor burghers—he becomes gonfaloniere, 1421.
The Visconti in Milan.
John Ualeazzo aims at becoming king of Italy ; dies, 1402-John Marin, 1402-12—anarchy in Milan, its power dc-cUues—PAifip Maria, 1412-47.
1404, 5, Venice acquires Vi-
Naples_and Sicily.I
Vladislas,—1414.
1409 Sicily a province of Aragon.
1403 Crowned king of Hungary at Zara.
cipally occasioned by the spread of Wichliffe s writings.
Huss opposes many abuses in the church; burns,
Ofen-
the parliament of cenza, Bassano, Verona, and
I tejt l nrplntoa and! ~	'	7	'
1408 Lord of Rome.
I Padua.
bouses: Magnates (prelates and' state-officers) ; 2. Commons (land-1 holders and burgesses) — 80,000 assemble
□eTredAit.the“ti0U&leleCti0U fleld at*aAos>1406 Florentines capture Pisa.
1409 Campaign in Tus-
cany.
Plans the conquest of Italy.
o“asace an“ police!1"8 ^ ttdmlnlBtra-|1409 Massacre of the French 1413 Driven from Rome 1 in Genoa, which recovers its k" *'----------------------------------------------------------J:---------J
1410 Sigismund king of the Romans.! 1413^ 80verned doges, 1412, a papistical!	B	6
letter of indul- 1412 Mortgage of the Zipser cities.
1417 First appearance of gipseys.
1420 Dalmatia tost to Venice.
Sigismund king of Bohemia.
1422 Elizabeth, Sigismund’s daughter, married to Albert of Austria.
1425 Capture of Belgrade—it becomes the bulwark of Hungary.
1430-35 Invasion’s of th e Hussites.
1422 SigUmund defeated and driven from Bohemia—disunion mong the Hussites— Calixtin e sand Tabor it es-the latter gain some remarkable
1435 Fundamental law respecting the new organisation of royal proclamations—on account of dangers threatened by the Turks.
victories, but last entirely defeated, and acknowledge 81-fglamund, 1435.
1437 Election of Albert II. of Haps-burg.
1436 Compact at Tglau.
House of Hapsburg, 1438-1740—in Hungary, 1438-1457.
Albert II., 1438, 9, (married to Elizabeth, daughter of Sigismund, queeu of Bohemia and Hungary.
T’rfbfbtp TTT	Casimir, brother to
------	•	vladislas of Poland, is 1439 Turkish war—Albert dies upon
set up by the llussites,! 1.;.-eturn but is defeated and.ex.l nl8 return, polled by Albei
1440-93, cousin.
1446	War with Hungary, for refusing to give up the young prince Vladislas.
1447	Concordat with Rome — acknowledgment of the rights of the German church—another at Vienna, 1448, between JFneas Sylvius' aiid the emperor, without the concurrence of the states.
1448 The count of Hol-stein-OUlenburg becomes king of Denmark.
1451 Expedition to Rome, and marriage of the king to Eleanor of Portugal.
1412 Numerous tyrants in Lombardy—all the virtues of Italy take refuge in Florence.
1427-54 Five wars between Venice and Milan—the first, 1427, 8.
by the pope, dies mad.
Joanna II., sister, 1414-35.
Under this weak and licentious queen, the kingdom relapses into anarchy.
Cosmo de Medici in Florence, 1429-63—great patron of the arts and sciences—banished, 1433, 34—library founded iu Florence, 1444. He is ambitious, and a great enemy to liberty and republics.
1431-33 Second war between Venice and Milan.
1436-42 Third war between Venice and Milan.
1446-48 Fourth ’ war between Venice and Milan.
1447 Republic of Milan re-established—extinction of the Visconti.
House of Sforza in Milan—
FRANCI9, duke, 1450-66.
1454-64 Struggle between Cosmo de Medici and the aristocracy he had created.
1457 Foscari, doge of
deposed—dies immediately.	| give luetre io bin reign.
1420 Louis III. of Anjou, son of Louis II., i9 invited to N aples by
Sforza.
1421 The queen adopts Alfonso V. of Aragon— revokes this adoption and substitutes Louis III., 1423—Alfonso retires to Sicily.
Sicilian nobles obtain unlimited power over their subjects.
1434	Death of Louis.
1435	Naples becomes a province of Aragon, and is united to Sicily under Alfonso V.
1438 Reamer, brother of Louis HI., endeavours to make good his pretentions to Naples, but is compelled to give way to Alfonso.
Vladislas {Posthumous), the infant son of Albert II., i^-61 The French rule -1440-57, under the guardianship of Frederic III— Genoa—Milan obtains it, 1464. *£RDINAND,ntiturnl son, JEneas Sylvius, his tutor.	1463-70 War of Venice with
Two regents, j/einAard/VLADiSLASlII.,1440-43, k of Poland, the Turks—death of Scander-
cliosen by the cut bo- 1443 Turkish war—victory of John Hunniades, ICS, Ptarsko by the, near	peace of Czegedin, broken, 1444-
llusfutes—they strug-j lattU 0f V ar n a—Vladislas defeated gle for superiority. and kiUed.
Podiebr ad succeeds John Hunxunes, ? nat. son of Sigismund, Ptarsko, and becomes.: vicar-general of the kingdom till 1463.
1444, governor of the \yar w|t|, the emperor Frederic for not giving kingdom, which hej	up Vladislas and the holy crown,
mien with vigour and:
prudence.	11448 Defeat near Kosscvti.
give up the young king
11448 Defeat ne
1452	Frederic is compelled by the noblea of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary,
Vladislas to the earl of Cilley.
1453	Austria an hereditary duchy. I	^ -3	j Vladislas confirms Hunniades in the
1453. etc. Several diets held in vain I \nnJ:siB, Prownetl
expedition against the| Vlatlisias crowneu , ,...
regency.
1462 The e*p™ i. be-.« Belgf.de, 1467. ^
1457.
younger
G. Podiebrad of Bohemia. 1468 War with G. Podie-
brad.
French ser- ! Charles the Bold}
▼•ce. I and, 1477, over j 1469-80 Invasions 1476 Defeat of Fancy, in which 1472 University of Ingoldsta.lt.
Charles at Charles is slain. -----	••
Granson and
Permanent union
Mbrnt, by the Swiss.
1473 Treaty with Charles the Bold of Burgundy.
with Austria.
Civil broils.
1477 Defeat and death of Charles near Nancy, by the duke of4
Lorraine. 1480 First subsi-1477 Maria diary treaty with bis daughter,
of the
1477 Marriage of Maximilian and Maria of Burgundy.
marries Maximilian of Austria.
War with France, 1477-82.
France.
1481 Friburg and Soleure join the Swiss confederacy.
Philip,
1482-1506.
1484 Insurrection of the Flemings, isisted by F'rauce.
1496 Philip marries the Infanta, Joanna of Spain
lauds boro united to Spanish m
The Swiss, famous for the excellence of their troops, are courted by the rival princes of Europe.
The Xetherlands and Burgu •e united to Austria by this n risge—its issue was Philip. -iccl Johanna, heiress of Cat by whom lie had Charles V., lit the rivalry of France and Spain.
Turks.
I4S5 Matthias of Hungary captures Vienna—the emperor goes to Lim Maximilian king of the Romans. 1488 Second Swabian league.
1491 War with France.
Maximilian I., 1493-1519.
1494	Second marriage of Maximilian. with the rich danghtei of Ga-leiixzo. of Milan, Bianca Maria.
1495	Diet of Worms—establishment of a perpetual public peace and imperial chamber.
Successful war against Maximilian—peace, and ratification of Swiss independence, 1500.
1496 Unfortunate, Italian wai gainst France.
Marriage of his son, Philip, Johanna of Castile.
House of Jagellon.
Vladislas II., 1471-1516.
He sets free Matthias Corvin, who bad been confined ss a prisoner , Prague, and gives him his daughter Catherine in marriage.
Hungary, under his government, becomes formidable to her neighbours, and a respectable independent powei in the republic of Europe.
First election capitulation.- yearly parliament at Pest -the uobility aud descendants ' free from taxes.
Rival election of Frederic III.
1463	Agreement with Frederic, who gives up the throne, but keeps the title ofk.of Hungary
Bosnia wrested from the Turks.
1464	Turkish war-abolition of the old Magyar war-system, and formation of a standing army of lufautry—the celebrated black guard.
1465	University of Gfen, for 40,000 students. 1466 Moldavia acquired.
1469-	9 War with Podiebrad of Bohemia.
1470-	71 Kebelliouof the nobility onaccountol
War with Hun-gury.
beg, 1466.
Pietro de Medici, 1464-69, succeeds Cosmo at Florence. GalEazzu duke of Milan, 1466-76.
Lorenzo de Medici {the Magnificent), 1469-92, succeeds Pietro at Florence. 1470 Conspiracy of Bernardo Nardo against the Medici.
1473 The Genoese lose their possessions in the Crimea, aud the trade of the Levant.
enice acquires many Greek __,
which seek her protection agaiust the Tuiks— Cyprus, 1473.
1476 Galeazzo Sforza murdered —Ludovico (the Moor), bis brother, succeeds, 1476-99, by expelling his nephews.
1477, 8 The Turks enter Italy — Venice makes peace with them, 1479.
1478 Conspiracy of tiiePaz-Zl at Florence, fomented by pope Sixtus IV.
1470 First printing in Bohemia.
the t<
War with Bohemia and Poland.
1472 First printing at Ofen.
1476 Marrisge with Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand of Naples.
JfollAiasInvitesfrom Italy, artificers,painters, architects, printers, manufacturers, artizans, agriculturists, and learned men of all kinds. Large library at Ofen—300 copyists of MSS.
' 1-477 War with Frederic III.—peace 1478— war j renewed 1480—Matthias takes Vienna, 1485—
, truce, 1487 ; Matthias retains Vienna, New-stall t, and all Ills other conquests in Aubtrla 11490 Death of Matthias, at Vienna.
Vladislas II. becomes king of Hungary, 1490, where he resides.
1491 Peace with Frederic III.: cession of all conquests-successlon of Austria secured-l-Te-dericaud Maximilian preserve the royal title. 1492 Gives up Poland.
1494 Gives up Moldavia.
Vast power and wealth of the bishops predominating influence at court—suppresaton of the lesser uobility by the magnates.
John, son of Rcgnier of Anjou, claims the throne of Naples, but give, way, 1464.
1460 Sicily and Sardinia united to Aragon.
iulio, brother of Lorenzo, Is assassi. nated in the cathedral—Lorenzo escapes
-massacre of the Dizti - Lorenzo excommunicated for having hung an archbishop ; hut he obtains the support of cuate it the next year. Ferdinand of Naples and the pope.	J
The power of the Medici increases-
Learning flourishes.
iMrenzo gives up trade, and turns tided proprietor—his advice and me. diatioti is sought for by tbs various oar-ofItaly.
Pietro II.. 1492-94, succeeds his father, Lorenzo, in Florence
He breaks with Milan,and invites the French into Italy—ex. 1494—d. 1504.
1458-94,
1461 Scanderbeg called to aid the kiDg, obtains several fiefs.
1480 The Turks capture and destroy Otranto (12,000 Christians slain or made prisoners) eva-
1487 Fall of the aristocracy—the king causes a great number of unruly nobles to be taken and murdered at a banquet.
Alfonso II.,
1494, 5, resigns.
1494	Expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy—sixty-five years of Italian wars, -1559.
Ferdinand II., 1495, 6, j flees to Ischia.
1495	Charles invades Naples—the conquest of Italy com
pleted in four months and a-half.
1^96 I-eigiie of IW egainat Rhodes, between the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand ofbpain, the polV,.LudovicoSfonaof Milan, and Venice Clmr.es retreata from Naples-Bmns a victory at Foruovo and flahta his way back to France.
. The French capitulate—-Ferdinand restored.
'FuedericIII. uncle,1496
. —loses the kingdom of Ferdi nand the Catholic, 1501, which is joined to 9paiu till 1713.
1
22 Continuation of Table x.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
The Fifteenth

GREAT GENERAL COUNCILS. RISE OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. IVAN I.
Church History and POPES.
Bonifacr IX.—1404.
Benedict at Avignon. Innocent VII., 1404-6. Gregory XII., 1406,—de-poied, 1409, — abdicates, 1415,—d. 1417.
The council of Pisa (1409) deposes Gregory and Benedict, and elects Alexander V., 1409-10— as neither will give way, Three Popes at ones. John XXIII., 1410,—deposed, 1415, by the council of Constance.
•gainst him were, “that _ _ _
torlously lnfamone, peijitred, tyrannical, elmonlacal, homicidal, incestuous,” etc.
Council qf Constance, 1414-18—the 'second great general council for the reformation of the church, and one of the most (numerous assemblies of Christendom—its famous decree was, the superiority of councils over the papal chair.
John Huss, the forerunner of Luther, burnt at Prague, 1415 (see under Bohemia), and Jerome, 1416.
Martin V., 1417-31. Clement VIII., 1424, resigns, 1429—end of the schism, which had lasted fifty-one years. Eugenios, 1431—47.
Council of Basle, 1431-48 —the third great general council for the reformation of the church—it abolishes annates, reservations, and other abuses of papal authority.
Adoption of the decrees of Basle for the liberties of the church, in France, 1438, by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, and in Germany, 1439.
Nicholas V., 1447-55.
1448 Concordat of Aschaf-fenberg, by which the liberties of the German church are compromised.
The principal nations; of Europe make a aland CaLIS- against the despotism of tttq 1 IT	pope. Numerous
, ® ie1 e*cts, as the Wlcliffltes, 1455- Hussites, Callxtiues. 58, Waldenses, and others.
Civilisation, Literature, Celebrated Men, etc.
In this century, which forms as it were a bright morning between the night of the foregoing centuries and the splendid day of the fast three hundred years, those great events occurred which form an imaginary boundary between modern history and that of the dark ages.—1. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks, 1433; 2. The discovery of America by Columbus; 3. of the maritime passage to the East Indies by Vasco de Gama, 1497; 4. Changes in the art of war by the use of gunpowder; 5. Manufacture of paper and art of printing; rising spirit of free inquiry, which places general councils above the decrees of the pope, and leads to the Reformation; 6. The revival of ancient learning, and with it of a better taste, and an improved philosophy; 7. The formation of a middle class of citizens; 8. The consolidation of civil authority; and lastly, The advancement of experimental philosophy and the sciences.
Tnlveraltlea founded — Wurshurgh, 1408 — Valentia, 1404-Turin, 1406—Leipzig, 1409 — «. Andrews, 1411 — Rostock, 1419—Louvaine, 1426—Caen, 1430 — Poicticrs, li3l—Florence, UBS—Bourdeaux, lUl—Cantania, 1446— Glasgow, 1464— Gre\fswald, 1466—Frtigburg, 1467—Basle,
Denmark, Norway, Sweden.
Union of Oalmar.
Margaret,—1412.
Eric VII., of Pomerania, 1412-39— d. 1459—grandson of Margaret’s sister.
1412-35 Unsuccessful war with the counts of Holstein, in order to wrest from them the Danish fief, Sleswic —the llansetowns aid the counts from 1426.
The Teutonic Or. der, now at the height of its power, possesses the whole line of coast from Dantzic to Narva, with an extensive population, and a Flourishing trade.
D«t„ tt Man7 *lB0 ln l'«r very rIU8 II.,bosom bear witness '
1477-1499.
Libraries—Vatican, at Rome, 1447—St Mark, at Venice, by Card. Bsssarlon, 1468—at Buda, by Matth. Corviuus.
Literature and the Arts and Sciences Son. rlah at Florence, under Coamo and Lorenso de Medici,
(Porthv, Painting akd Music. see page 24.) Revival of Greek Literature in Italy, whence it spreads over the rest of Europe— John Agbyopulus, Bessabion of Trebizond, d. 1472—Demetrius CHALCONDYLABofAtheus, (edits Homer jointly with Demetrius Cre-TENSis,) d. 1488—teach and translate Greek in Italy. Writers : Simeon, 1429—Eman. Mos-chopulus, philologist, 1453—George Codi-nus, John Ducas, Mich. Glycas, Laonicub Chalcondylas, George Phanzes, Byzantine historians—Constantine Lascaris, d. 1493, grammarian—Gresokias TiphrrnaSi Hier. Alexander, teach Greek at Paris— Rudolph Agricola, 1442-85—Conrad Cel-tes, d. 1508, in Germany.
Rome the seat of classical literature under Nicholas V.—foundation of the Vatican, 1447 —Laur. Valla, and Theod. Gaza.
Philosophy—Scholastic philosophy, with its subtleties and quibbles, falls still more into disrepute, and mysticism continues to prevail —see page 24.
Theologians (mystics): Peter d’Ailly, d. 1425, and John Gerson, d. 1429, chancellors, and Nicholas de Clemangis, d. ab. 1440, rector of the university of Paris, all oppose it, and promote the study of the Scriptures—Raymond de Sabondb, d. ab. 1436 (nat. tbeol.) —Thomas Hambrken (Maleolus), called Thomas a Kempis, b. 1380, d. 1471. (H 4 Imitation of Jesus Christ,’ is said to have been printed 1800 times)—John Wessel (Gansford), d. 1489.
The works of Aristotle and Plato, in their ori-
1458-64. ^er th^necensUy8' 0? D2|	^orm> come into repute.
reformation both In doc-l p.yrr tt trine and morals. The Neoplatonic System, founded by'Nic Cuba. AULii.,pnbIIC Baje of. church d. 1464, patronised by Cosmo and Lorenzo de Medici, flourishes at Florence—see page 24.
The revival of Classical Literature deprives Scholastic i-hilosophy of all authority.
Natural Sciences, etc.—Leonard of Pisa introduces algebra into Italy—George of Gmunden, astronomer at Vienna, 1440— George of Peurbach, 1423-61, professor of astronomy at Vienna, father of modern trigonometry ; his celestial hemisphere; his * The-oria Planetarum’—Joh. Muller Regiomontanus, 1436-76, astronomer and mathematician ; his excellent Epbemerides lead to the use of algebra in Germany—Lady Juliana Berners, 1481, one of the earliest female English writers; her book on Hawking, Hunting, and,Heraldry—Dom. Maria Votkra, d. 1514, celebrated as teacher of astronomy to Coper-nicus—1492 Martin Bbhain’s (of Nuremberg) map of the world ; he greatly assists the Portuguese in their discoveries, d. at Lisbon, 1406.,	’
Hlatorlana-FsoissxBT, d. H01, History and Chronicle from 1826 to U00-Mos8TO«lrt, his contlnuator till bis death, 1468—J. Roths, of Elsenbach, 1463—Rodrioo, of Zamora, 1407-70, Spanish historian—Leonardo Bruno Aretiso, d. 1444, historian of Florence; and Fb. Pogqio Braccjolini, d. 1469, both forerunners of Macthiavelli-John IIardyno, Chronicle of England-d. ab. 1466—Cax-ton, d. 1491, Chronicle of England—ASm. Stlv. Piccolo-xmi (Pope Pius II.), • Hist sul TemporlB’—Aht. Bkcca-della Paxormita—M ibkond, d. 1496, and Komdemir.
1464-71. preferments, of indulgences, (and pardons for aln, scandalise all Christendom.
The councils of Pisa, Constance, and Sienna, vote for a general reformation of the church.
Sixtus IV., 1471-84.
1481 Spanish inquisition
sstablishsd—originally Introduced to confiscate the property ol the rich Jewish families. Accord Ing to Llorente, in three centuries 800,000 suffered In person or estate, and 30,000 were executed. The Jews, driven from Spain, an received ln Portugal.
1484 The first auto da ft at Seville.
Innocent VIII., 1484-92.
ALEXAN- 1492 The Jews entirely nwn VI driven from Spain-fir V\ 800,000 emigrate i (Borgia) Africa.
1492- li9r Persecution of the 1502-3. Jews ta Port“gaL
Repotism, carried to a vast extent
lies of the popes. For the elevation of their kindred, the popes mingle in the conspiracies or this had age, and are only distinguished >7 the more scandalous turpitude if their vices, from the petty tyrants around them. The profligacy, Inst, cruelty, and avarice of Alexander and his son, Caesar (Borgia), are unpaialelled in history. Having concerted together to poison nine newly-created cardinals, in order to seize their wealth, thay by mistake drink themselves of the eup The pope Is poisoned, Cesar recovers,but Is stripped of hie treasures and slain 1607. Lucretla, his sis Is celebrated as a poison mixer.
1433 Engelbert, leader of the Dale-karlians, expels tbe Danish general. Agreement at Stockholm.
Eric grants an amnesty, but breaks his word.
Char. Knutson (Bonde) protector of tbe kingdom till 1441.
The three kingdoms renounce their allegiance to Eric—he retires into Gothland till 1449—dies in Pomerania, 1459. {
1439 The Danes alone elect
Christopher of Bavaria,
Eric’s sister’s son, 1439—d. 1448.
1441 Christopher is acknowledged in Norway and Sweden—coronation at Dronlhetm and Uysal.
Chablf.8 VIII. (Knutson Bonde) becomes king, 1448-70. Coronation at Upsal.
House of Oldenburg.
Christian I., 1448-81, aged 22—marries Dorothy of Brandenberg, Christopher's widow.
Capitulation— the crown acknowledged to be elective. Great power of the
national royal council.
1449
Coro-
nation
of
Charles
VIII.
at
Dron-
tbeim.
1450 Christian)
!?57 Ctata
ed at 18 compelled Dron- *>y the offended clei flee to
Prussia.
House of Jagellos.
Vladiblas II., —1434.
Poland.
Wallachia acknowledges the sovereignty |of Poland, 1401.
1409-11 War with Poland—signal victory of the king of Poland at Trauneuberg—the grand master and 40,000.of tbe order slain.
Peace of Thorn, 1411, by which Sa-mogitia is ceded to Poland.
The'power pf the order declines.
Its oppressive government and heavy taxes, occasioned by continual wan, induce tbe nobles and cities of Prussia and Pomerania to confederate against it.
League of Marian-werder, 1440.
They seek the protection of Poland.
1460
Acquires Sleswic and Holstein by Inlierit&uce-capl. tulatiou respecting Charles z'c‘ these provinces- ^	.
tbe throne elective abut- Christian king ...........	—coronation
without tbe con-eeut of the states -yearly parlia-
his sc	_
1446-1609, Memoirs-Platixa, Lives of the Popes—Jo
DLnoossus, PoUsh hist, himo-femaedo dil puoar, 1493 Alliance with Rns-
HOAflilh hlflt	R1MI1TA ftlA Htinffavian f .Ira si 1K/M	_
Spanish hist— Boneinius, the Hungarian Livy, d. 1602. Flourishing period of art at Florence wider the Medici-the statuaries, Ghibrbti, Doxatkllo—FVorentiiM architecture: the palace Pittl, Klchardl, Strozzi, by Beukkileb-chi, Michelozzi, Benedetto Majano — its school of painters—see page 24.
to be conferred ou foreigners— Indissoluble union.
1462 Foundation of the order of the Elephant
1468 Mortgages the Orkney and Shetland isles to Scotland, and remits the established tribute.
at Upsal.
1464 Charlea re-
1467 Returns a second time—maintains himself a*
Strn Stubs, bis nephew, .1471-16064 protector.
Dantzic, after tbe fall of Wisby, capital of Prussia aud Livonia — residence of the Hause mer-
Bussia.
Subject to the Khan of Kaptshak.
Tartars of the Golden Horde.
John,
1481-1513.	Sten Stars Invites
1483 Coronat of John Sweden—calls de in Sweden, where he puties from cities, j. pytully Kksow-ledged.	terbalance
1«Z,Sard capi‘'da'
First Printing office at Stockholm, 1488.
1488 War with
1493 John ig compelled to share Sleswio and Holstein with his brother Frederic.
sia against Sweden.
1497 Coronation of John.
1499 The succession promised tol John’s son Christopher.
Wallachia, 1419.
1420 The Hussites offer Vladislus the crown of Bohemia, which be refuses-his nephew, Kori-buth, goes there, 1422-27, as regent.
Vladisla8 III. 1433-44, aged lOyrs. under the guardianship of the states of the kingdom.
Many troubles — Lithuania a prey to the ferocity of the Russians and the Teutonic knights. 1440
Vladiblas chosen king of Hungary —proposed that he should marry the widowed queen—he marries her eldest daughter.
1443 Turkish war
— successful — victory of John Huu-iades at Nyssa — peace 1443; broken by the Christians, 1444 — Battle of Varna, in which Vladislas is slain.
CaSIMIh IV., 1445-92, brother — elected — he objects to swear to the pacta conventa, but is compelled. Confirmation of the
National Libehty in the Diet at Petrikau, 1453.
1449 Agreement with Hungary.
1454 The confederate nobles and cities renounce their allegiance to the order, and submit to Poland.
War of the Order with Poland, 1454-66—long and bloody—the order lose Marianberg and Conitz, and is thereby cut off from all communication and help from Germany. Of 21,000 villages, only 3000 were spared.
Marriage of Casimir with Eliza, daughter of the emperor, Albert U.
1466 Rational legislation: no laws and no war, without the consent of the diet.
Peace of Thom. 1466, by which the grand master, and eastern Prussia, becomes a vassal and fief of Poland—West Prussia (Marianberg, Dant-Z’C, Elbing, Culm), is ceded to Poland— Fruitless opposition of the German emperor
1468	First diet of the country Deputies at Petrikau.
Each palatine sent two or more deputies (in all 400); every nobleman may still however attend.
The power of the king reduced to nothing—the peasants enslaved — the aristocracy everything.
The senate the second body—comprises the bishops, palatin--lane, and ministers.
1469	Vladislas, tbe king’s son, elected king of Bohemia.
1471 War with Hungary respecting Moldavia and Wallachia—peace.
The horde of Kaptshak is weakened by the invasion of Timur intestine di-' visions, while the grand dukes of Moscow consolidate their power by the union of several principalities.
1441 The horde of Kaptshak is overthrown and splits into the principalities of
Crimea, Chasan, Astracan, Siberia.
Struggle of the grand
against the Polish superiority.
Ivan L
(Vasilavicbe the Great), 1462-1505.
He takes advantage ' the divisions of the Tartars, to strengthen Ills authority at home, and make it respected abroad—enlarges the kingdom by numerous ----------- unions.
1491 First prinUng press at Cracow,
■ John Albert, 1492-1501—Casimir’s second son—never married.
1472 Ivan marries _ phia, niece of the last Greek emperor; hence tbe claim to the Greek empire—adoption of the double eagle Instead of St. George as the imperial arms— adoption of the Uile of Uzar (Casar).
1476 Last tribute paid to tbe Golden Horde.
1478 Rovgorod captured -Dectins of the Hanseatic tradi ia.
1480 Dissolution of the Golden Horde.
Ambassadors from Germany, Poland, Denmark, the Holy See. and Truce, furthe first time o Moscow.
.485-92 Fortification of the Kremlin. by Italians.
1488	War with Sweden.
1489	Acquisition of numerous provinces.
1493 League with Denmark against i Sweden.
Ivan preserves Inter-nal peace by Bevere despotism; and secures bis frontiers by successful warfare.
Century.
THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
23
FALL OF THE GREEK EMPIRE—MOHAMMED II. PORTUGUESE IN INDIA—VASCO DI GAMA.
Greek Empire.
Manuel II.—1425. 1400 Peace with Bayezid : the Turks obtain some of the principal streets, and some separate cadis in Constantinople— the Greek emperor pays a yearly tribute of 30,000 ducats.
Manuel journeys in rain to Italy, France, and England, to obtain help.
Ottoman Empire.
Bayezid I. (Bajazet), —1403.
Tartary and Persia.
Timur,—1405.
Alliance of Timur with the Greeks—expedition into Natolia.
1401 Conquest of Syria. 1402 Timur’s second invasion of Asia Minor-Bayezid defeated and made prisoner in
The battle of Angora.
1403 Bayezid dies in Timur’s camp:
Ten years' anarchy-civil wars of his sons.
Turkmans of the
Black Sheep
in Persia, Armenia, and
The Turkish emirs in Asia Mesopotamia, Minor, the Ottoman and 1403-67. Egyptian sultans, and the Cara Jusuf Greek emperor, tributary.; 1403 20 ' :i403 E»ped.t»G«orgi. |	i(Mr
Mohammed I.,	-H04 Timur munis to Sa-'
1413-21 —subdues all
ava iiiuui ictuiua tu uo- ,	.	.	.	'	------>------------
markand—dies upon an r..e deatU ot makes Lahore his capital, 1145.
nvnii3iti/\nt/\ Pliinn	I IIDUT. fCCOTCfS	D
Smr pretenders, and exped.tionto China, 14_05. ^
reduces the SeljukPlit Moiiammeo, his i emirs to subjection. I grandson, succeeds, |	| but is opposed aud
J Acquisitiou, 1415, of; put to death by ■ Bosnia, and, 1418, ol Khai.il Sultan,
Wallachia.
MuradII. (Amurath), I 1421-51.
1422 Vain attempt upon Constantinople with 200,000 men.
John VII., 1425-48.
1438 The emperor journeys to Italy to obtain help against the Turks—submits himself to the pope.
Second union of the Greek and Latin churches — of short continuation.
Constantine XI., 1448-53.
The last emperor.
1406-1408.
Shah Kokh, a 4th son of Timur, reigns over Khurasan anti Transoxiana, 1410-46.
Capital. Samarkand. He defeats and renders tributary the Turkman chiefs of Persia and Asia Minor.
1439 Vain attemptupon Belgrade.
1443	Victory of J. Hun-yades and Scander-beg, near Nissa.
After this victory Scander-beg achieves Ills Indepen-deuce ill Albania—dies, 1467.
Murad's first abdication.
1444	Peace of Segedin: the pope’s legate instigates the Christian! princes to violate it—
Vladislas, king of Poland, presses to the Black Sea—Murad re-assumes the govern' ment.
Battle of Va rna, in which the king 0f Ce,ebrated 88 the P8'
feated and put to death, 1410.
Conquest of
Bagdad.
Sekandah, son, 1420, succeeds—is deleat-ed by
Shah Rokii, who ruises his brother Ichan Shaii tu the throne.
1437 He conquers Georgia, great part of Persia, and Kar-man.
Ulugh Beg, his son, 1446-49.
Poland and the legate are killed.
Murads second abdication.
1446 Again resumes the government, upon the mutiny of the janizaries at Adrianople.
' 1448 Victory of Cos-sovaover J.Hunyades.1'149 Put to death by
tron of astronomy and geography.
Mohammed II.,
1451-81—conqueror of I two empires, twelve !l kingdoms, & 300 cities.
1453 End of the Greek empire—Siege The dominions of Jland capture of Constantinople by the Turks, Timur are held by ■with 300,000 men, and 300 ships—the Chris-jdifferent princes, his iBtians obtain security and the free exercise ofdescendants :
|[f.........
his son, who is slain, after six months’ rule, by his own soldiers.
I their religion.
Abusaitfs dominions are divided among his eleven sons, most of whom are dispossess-
1469-80 Repeatedly invades the Austrian ter- ed by ritoriea.
1473 Victory over Uzan Hasan—peace.
1474, 5 Acquisition of the possessions of the Genoese in the Crimea, and subjection of the Tartars there—(dominion of the Gheari family from 1441-1783).
1455	Vain attempt upon Belgrade.
1456	Athens conquered—Moldavia tributary.
Baber, in Khorasan, till 1456.
AbusaID, great grandson of Timur, 1457.
INDIA, 1000—1500.
In the tenth century India was divided amongst varions native principalities : in the north, Lahore, Ajmer, Delhi, Khanoj, etc.; and in the south, Pandya, Chola, Chera, Kerala, etc.
1001-25 Repeated invasions of Mahmud of Ghizni, who places Vallabha' (or Dab shelim) on the throne of Guzerat, or Anhalwara.
Bhoja, raja of Dhar, 1030.
The Hindus recover all the places taken by Mahmud, except Lahore, and remain unmolested by the Mohammedans.
Visai.a deva ChouiiaN, of Ajmer, reduces most of the princes of Upper India to hi* authority, 1025.
Mahichandra Kantore founds a new dynasty at Kanoj, 1048.
Beiiram, of Gbizni, driven out of Ghizui by Mohammed Ghori, retreats to India, and
1400
Prithwi Rai, raja of Ajmer and Delhi, 1150.
dom ; but is de- Mohammed Ghori, sultan of Ghizni, invades India, 1176—defeated in Guzerat, by
Turkman! of the
White Sheep.
This tribe was ei tablisbed in Mesopotamia and Natolia — independent under Kara Ulugh Othman. succeeded by Harr
Bhima Deva, 1178—takes Lahore, and puts an end to the Ghizni princes, 1186—defeated by Prithwi Rai, 1191—defeats the confederate rajas on the Saraswati, Prithwi Rai taken and put to death, 1192.
Jaya Chandra, of Kanoj, defeated And slain, and the Mohammedan authority of India first established, 1194.
Mohammedan Kingdom of Delhi, X206.
First Turk Dynasty. ,
1.) Kutter ad din, 1206, first Mohammedan king of Delhi. 2.) Aram, 1210.3425
3.	) Shems ad din Altmish, 1211—conquers Bengal, 1220—subdues central India, 1232.
4.	) Rukn ad din Feros, 1236. 5 ) Razia Begum, queen, 1237. 6.) Moiz ad din,'
1239. 7.) Ala ad din Masaud, 1242. 8.) Nasi a ad din, 1245—practises extreme frugality, Hnd provides for his own food by copying the Koran. 9.) Gheias ad din Balban, 1266, gives protection to a number of princes expelled from Turkestan by the Mongols—encourages literature. 10.; KaIKOBad, 1286.
Second Turk, or Khiui Dynasty, at Delhi.
Sultans:	j
1.) Jelal ad din Feroz, 1228—a severe famine in Hindustan, 1291—the Dekkin! first invaded, and Ramadeva, raja of Devagiri, made tributary, 1294. 2.) Ala ad DIN,j 1295—captures the strong fort of Chitore, 1298—gains many victories over the Hindus —fixes the price of all articles of consumption—sends an army into the Bekkin—Wa-rungul, the capital of Zelingani, taken, 1309—the Dekkin ravaged to Cape Comorin,' and Dwara Samudra destroyed, 1310. 3.) Umar, 1316, three months. 4.) Mubarik,
1317—carries his arms into Guzerat, aud the south to Malabar, 1319.
Third Turkish, or Toghlek Dynasty, at Delhi.
1.	) Gheias ad din, 1321, governor of Lahore, is elected king.
2.	) Mohammed Toghlek, 1325, a highly accomplished and gallant prince, becomes fierce and capricious tyrant—issues, 1326, a copper currency at an arbitrary valuation—occasions great distress—an army sent to China, across the snowy mountains —
i succeeded oy nam [destroyed, 1337—removes the entire population of Delhi to Dowlatabad, in the Dek-[ za Beg (H06), w^kin, 1339—hunts the peasantry like wild beasts, and hangs their heads on the walls of left bis territorylDelhi, 1340—permits the people to return from Dowlatabad to Delhi—a famine, vast j (1444) to his ne-numbers perish, 1341
| phew,
Jchangin, s expelled (1467) by his bro-j tber, Uzun Hasan.
Uzun Hasan, Hasan the Long, 1467-78.
Victory over Uzun Hasan of Persia.
1479 Peace with Venice—the republic pays tribute for trading in the Black sea.
Fruitless attempt upon Rhodes, which is defended by the grand-master, D. Au-buisson.
Bayezid II. (Bajazel), 1481-1512.
The first unwariike sultan.
1493 First Turkish establishment of a voyiade of Wallachia,
1493, sqq. Wars with Egypt, Hungary, and Venice.
HaSein-Mirza a descendant of Timur, prince of Ma-zenderam, 1470-1505.
He patronises literature.
Under him the celebrated Persian historians, Mirkand and Khonde-mir.
1473 Defeated, and makes peace with the Porte.
THE POWBB OF TOE SULTAN’S OF DELHI OBEATLT DECLINES DURING THIS BEIGN.
Hamir of Mevar recovers Chitore, and re-establishes the Hindu principality ol Udayapur, 1330.
Fakhr ud din, 1338, king of Bengal.
The powerful Hindu state of Vijaya Nagar in the Dekkin, founded 1340. Ala'aD din Bahmini, establishes the kingdomof Kulburga, or the Dekkin,1347,
3. ) Firoz Toghlek, 1351—partly repairs the evils of his predecestor—a munificent promoter of public works.
4.	) Gheias ad din, 1388.
5.	) Abubekr, 1389.
6.	) Nasir ad din, 1390.
7.	) Mahmud, 1394—civil dissehsions in this and the preceding reigns leave the sul-He defeats and kills tan of Delhi little power.
Ichan Shah, and,	BEVEEAL «S0D0« voundid.)
Malik Raja Famki, king of Kandesh, 1375.
Dilavan Ghori, king of Mulwa, 1387.
Muzeffer Siiah, king of Guzerat, 1396.
KhaJA JehaN, king of Jonpur, or the east, 1396,
Petty kingdoms also of Lahore, Samana, Byana, and Kalpi, 1396, i Timur-Leng, or Tamerlane, invades India and takes Delhi, which is plundered, 1398.
Mahmud flies to Guzerat, 1398—Timur retires.
Maiimud returns to his capital, 1401—opposed by his nobles, and retreats to Kanoj, 1402—recovers his capital, but has no authority beyond it, 1405.
1468, Abusaid, and becomes master of Khorasan and the whole of Persia.
1470 Makes war with Mohammed, but is defeated.
Forms an alliance with the duke of Burgundy and the Venetians against the Turks.
Conquest of Bagdad.
1450
Kalil Bey, 1478, after six months, is killed by his^oab. brother,	1
Yakub Bey, 1478-90.
Poisoned by his wife.
Baibankor, son, 1490-
1498 Khan of the Usbeks
founded in Bochara by Shaibek Khan.
Sultan Babur, expelled, goes into India.
Fourth Turkish, or Sadat Dynasty, at Delhi.
1.	) Sayid Kiiizn Kiian, 1414, its founder, obtains the sovereignty of Delhi—professes to reign as the viceroy of Timur and of Shahrokh—recovers^ great part of the ~oab.
2.	) Sayid Mubarik, 1421, engaged in hostilities with the Gakars in the Punjab. 1429 The Punjab invaded by Amir Sheikh Ali, the Mongul governor of Kabul, who
commits great ravages, but is defeated by the kings.
11435 Builds Mubarikabad on the Jumna, but is soon after assassinated in consequence ' of a conspiracy amongst his nobles.
j 3.) Sayid Mohammed, his son, placed on the throne by the conspirators.
Behlol Lodi establishes himself in the government of Lahore.
Delhi besieged by the sultan of Malwa, but relieved by Beblol Lodi.
I 4.) Sayid Ala ad din, 1446, succeeds his father—removes his capital to Badaon-Delhi occupied by Behlol Lodi, in whose favour the king abdicates, being allowed to reside at Badaon unmolested till his death, in 1478.
Fifth, or Afghan Dynasty, called Lodi.
..) Behlol Lodi, 1450—recovers the districts surrounding Delhi, 1455—defeats the king of Jonpur, and reannexes the kingdom of Delhi, 1478.
2.) Secander Lodi, 1488—opposed by his brothers, but he subdues them—extends bis authority to Bahar and Tirhut, 1494.
A public controversy, held by order of the lilnp. between a nnmber ot Mohammedan doctor* and Hindu, who asserts that both religious are equally acceptable with God. The Hindu commanded t adopt MahommedanUiu, and, refusiug to apostatise, is put to death.
The Portuguese, under Vasco di Gama, arrive in India<
1475
1500
k
1
m
24 Table xi. PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE, SCIENCE, Etc. j i			
Philosophy. | Poetry, etc.		Painters, Music, Etc.	Trade and Commerce.
During the centuries of barbarism, the philosophic spirit dwindled to a very slender thread; but the reign of Charlemagne, and the schools founded by him, opened for it a new career.. In these schools, and in the universities, especially of Paris and Oxford, a considerable degree of zeal for science shot forth. An alliance now became formed between Faith, which implicitly received the doctrines of the Romish hierarchy, and Season, which laboured to investigate the principles of the same truths. The means employed were Logic and Metaphysics, or Dialectics. This was the origin of The Scholastic Philosophy. It divide** Into four periods, deduclble from the history of the question concerning the reality of ideas, and the relations of phllo sophy to religion. First period, to the Eleventh Century A blind realism, which endeavours to apply the elements of philosophy to theology. The attempts of philosophy during this period, untler the constraints of the hierarchy, were feeble and imperfect. Principal writers; Aleaih, born at York, 736-801—his pupil, Bhabanus Maurus, 776-868, Introduces It into Germany— John Bcotua, Erigena, an Irishman, one of the first writers o! the middle ages who dared to think for himself, taught and died at Oxford, 886—Hincmar, blnhop of Itheima— Gerbert (Sylvester II), d. 1003—Berenger, d. 1088— Lantfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, d. VXSb—Mldcbert of Tours, d. 113i—(Othlo and Honorius, two mouks and mystics). Second Period, from the Eleventh to the Thirteenth Century : First appearance of nominalism, and of a more liberal system of inquiry, which is quickly repressed by the church, which establishes the authority of realism : a closer alliance is formed between philosophy and religion. Principal writers: Roscellin, canon of Com-peigne, ab. 1089, head of the nominalists, and regarded by some as the founder of scholastic philosophy, revives the question as to the reality ol universal ideas—St. Ansblm, his great adversary, 1034-1109—William of Champeau, dies 1120, opens a school of logic at Paris, head of the realists —Abelard, b. 1079, d. 1142, his pupil and opponent, teaches at Paris, and gives a new impulse to scholastic philosophy; Paris becomes another Athens, students flock to it from all parts of the world—Hugh de St. Victor, b. 1096, d. 1140— Robert of Milan, d. 1173—Robert Pulleyn, Englishman, d.ab. 1150—Richard de St. Victor, Scotchman, d. 1173—Peter Lombardus, d. 1164, his book, ‘ Libri Sententiarum,’ gained him the name of * Magister Sententiarum’—John of Salisbury, d. 1180, a great promoter of learning. Notwithstanding tlie many absurdities of this age, independence of thought increases, but It is for a time subdued by persecutions, anathemas, and Interdictions. The most distinguished leaders of the adverse party were, St. Bernard, b. 1091, d. 1163-Walter, abbot of St. Victor, both mystics. Third period, about 1240-1350 : Exclusive dominion of realism—complete alliance between the church and Aristotelians. The works of Aristotle (through the medium of the Arabians), are widely disseminated—the circle of the sciences, and the field of Inquiry become enlarged. Aver roes, translator of, and commentator upon, Aristotle. Principal writer's : Alexander of Hales, d. 1245, tbe first who turned to account the works of the Arabians—William of Auvernk, d. 1249—Michael Scott, translator of Aristotle—Albert thi Great, 1193, d. 1280, dominican and realist— Bonaveniuba, 1221-74, scholastic and mystic— Thomas Aquinas, 1224-74, doctor universalis ei angelicus, a realist and dominican, founder of the sect of Thomasts—Peter Hispanub, d. 1277-Duns Scotus, native of Northumberland, ab. 1275. d. 1308—Roger Bacon, 1214, d. 1294, he taught at Oxford, opening new paths to inquiry by the study of nature and the languages; perhaps the most learned man of the middle ages—Raymond Lulli, b. 1234, d. 1315—Fb. Maybonis, d. 1325 a Scotist, he founded the celebrated disputations in the Sorbonne. Oxford, in the thirteenth century, only second to Perris in the number of ita students and tlie celebrity of its scholastic disputatious—it produced an invincible Hales, an admirable Bacon;, an excellent, well-grounded lliddlclon, e subtle Scotus, au approved Burley, a resolute Baeonthorpe, a solid Botcot, and a pro ' found Bradwardine, 1 Fourth Period, ab. 1330-1500: Struggle between nominalism and realism, and partial success of the; former—philosophy gradually detached from the-: ology—new disputes grow out of the attempts at reform in both. Principal writers : G. DubaND DE St. P0UR9WN contributes to the downfall of realism, but William Occam, d. 1347, a Franciscan, is considered as ita conqueror : his opposers were, Walter Burleigh, b. 1275, d. 1337, professor at Oxford— Thomas of Bradwardine, abp. of Canterbury, d. 1339—Thomas of Stbasbubgh, and Mabsilius of Inghen, d. 1396, etc. Celebrated nominalists, after Occam: John Buridan—Peter DAiUy— Robert Hoteot.A. 1849— Qregory of Rimini—Binhard Swineshead, taught at Oxford, ab. 1636—and others. A spirit of independence and a tendency to enlarged views in Philosophy, show themselves among the nominalists—scholastic philosophy loses ground. Mysticism is preached with great ardour by John Tauter, d. 1861—John Charlier de Oerson, b. 1363, d. 1429—Nicholas de Ole-mange, d. 1440—but the man who had the greatest influence In his own end succeeding ages was, Thomas a Kempis, b. 1380, d. 1471. Nearly all these regard revelation as the ouly true fountain of knowledge and wisdom. The revival of classical literature deprives scholastic philosophy qf all authority. The works of Aristotle and Plato, in their original form, come into repute hy the labours of George Oemisthus Pletho, of Constantinople, at Florence, 1438—of George Scholarius- of Theodore Gaea, d. ab. 1478—and George qf Trebizond, d. 1484-6. Neoplatonic syptem founded by Nie. Cusa, d. 1464, patronised by Cosmoand Lorenso de Mediei; It flourishes at Florence, where it is taught by Mareilius Ficinus, 1489 99, a physician, who translates Plato, Plotinus, Jamblichus, Proclus, etc.; his great work, 'Theologia Platonloa; hia disciple, John Pieus of Uirandota, 1463.94, endeavours to nolle the philosophy of Art ’ totle, Pythagoras, and Plato with the caballatlcal writings and revelation; hia nephew, T. Ft. Pieus htrand, follows his steps —both regard the Bible as the only Bource of trptb, and the Christian religion as the only true philosophy.	Romance poetry of the Middle Ages begins about, 1096. Provence and the south of France was the cradle ol romance and knightly poetry. William, duke of Gulenne, b. 1070, d. 1122, was the first of the Proveiifal troubadours: Fred. Barbarossa, Richard the Lion-hearted, with hia celebrated friend and minstrel, Rlondil, Roger of Sicily, Alfonso II. and Peter II. of Aragon, with numerous other French, Spanish, and Italian princeB and nobles, patronised aud cultivated the Provencal poetry. After William of Guienne we hear of no others till about the middle of the twelfth century; after which they were very numerous till the close of the thirteenth. In the Norman, or northern French, we have an immense number of poets belonging to the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries: 127 are known by name in the twelfth alone. Thibault, king of Navarre, ab. 1250, is accounted the best as weU as noblest of tbe French poets. Metrical romances: ‘ Havelock the Dane,’ before 1150, translated into English about 1270-90—Robert Wace’s (of Jersey) ‘ Brut d’Angleterre,’ ab. 1150, a free translation of Jeffrey of Monmouth’s history—ab. 1250, ‘ Le Roman de le Rose,’ by William of Lorris, in 22,000 stanzas; and after this time the ‘ Contes’ and ‘ Fabliaux.’ From Provence the troubadours’ songs spread into Lombardy and the east of Spain, Catalonia and Aragon. In Castile The Cid, ab. 1150—Portuguese poets, equally early, are recorded. Romanes poetry of tbe Middle Ages flourishes: about 1325,'The Amadis of Gaul, attributed to Pasco Lobeira, a Portuguese—Prince Juan Manuel’s (d. 1362) ‘ Conde Lucanor,’ a book of novels in prose. The reign of John II., king of Castile, 1407-54, was the golden age of lyric poetry in Spain. The 'Cancionero General,’ a collection of Spanish poetry, from the age of ‘ Juan de la Mena,’ about 1407 to 1517, contains the productions of 136 poets. In Germany the flourishing period of knightly poetry falls between 1173-1250—in which time the Swabian dialect became formed. Henry of Veldek (1170 7), stands at the head of the Minnesingers. Other celebrated poets of this period are : Gottfried v. Stbasburg— Wolfram v.Eschilbach—Heinricv.OfterdIngen--Hart-mann v. d. Aue—Ulrich v. Lichten&tein—Con-Rad v. Wikzbubg—and particularly WaLTBER v. d. Vogelweide. The celebrated collection of the knight Kcdieb v. Man esse .of Zurich, which dates 1313, contains the productions of 1401 poets. No poetry of the Swabian period is ao national as the epic romances; of these the two most celebrated are the ‘ Helden Buch’ (Book of Heroes), and the ‘ Nibelungen Lied’ (Lay of the Nibel-ungs), ab. 1200. German poetry declines with the rise of the Meister-singers. The flourishing period of its popular ballads was about 1476, the war songs of Veit Weber—1483 ‘Til Eulen-spiegel,’ satyres—in 1494 ‘ Sebastian Brant— John Geli.eb v. Kaisersberg, d. 1510—1498 ‘ Reynard the Fox,’ by Heinrich v. Alcmab. In England the Anglo-Saxon very gradually changed into English : the * Saxon Chronicle’ is continued to 1154 with but little loss of the purity of its language. From 1150 to 1250 what has been called semi-saxon prevailed; in this is written Lyamon’s translation of Wace’s ‘Romance of Brut,’ ab. 1200. <ome metrical lives of saints, ab. 1250, may be deemed English; but the first specimen, bearing a precise date, is a proclamation of Henry III. to tbe people of Huntingdonshire. Robert of Glocci8Ter’8 ‘Chronicle,’ after 1297. Laurence Minot’s poem, ab. 1352, peihaps the first original poet in our lAnguage now extant. John Barbour’s epic of ‘ The Bruce,’ ab. 1373. Blind Harry’s ‘ Acts of Wallace’ (1361). Geof. Chaucer, 1364, tbe father of English poetry. John Gower, 1402, French, Latin, and English poet. ‘ Vision of Piers Plowman,’ by Thomas Longlands, ab. 1390. In prose, the first English book was, ‘Sir John Mandeville’s Travels,’ 1356 ; it was followed by Wicki.iffe’s ‘ Translation of the Bible,’ 1383—Tbk-visa’s ‘ Version of Migden’s Polychronicon,’ 1385 —and Chaucer’s ‘ Astrolabe,’ 1392. About this time French generally goes out of use In England and English takes Its place, In the fifteenth century English poetry declines: Hoccleve—Lydgate—James I. of Scotland. ‘ The Paston Letters,’ 5 vols. 4to., written in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV., proofs ol literary improvement in England. At the close of this century we may notice, Andrew of Wynton—Will Caxton, first English printer, d. ab. 1491—Lady Juliana Berners, 1481—Stephen Hawes, poet—John Skelton, poet,d. 1521 —Will. Dunbab, 1465-1530—Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522. Italy came last of those countries where Latin had been spoken to the possession of an independent language and literature ; not even a few lines ol Italian have been found earlier than the end of the twelfth century. The three great Florentines : Dante, 1265-1391, father of modern Italian poetry—Petrarch, 1304-7A, reviver of ancient learning, and the first founder and collector o. any considerable library of ancient literature—Boccaccio, 1318*75, father of modem Italian prose. Sacchetti, follower ol Boeeacao, eb. 1400. Italian writers-Pufri. poet, 1487-Lorenzo Valla, 1467-Giau. hlanetti, 1469— Guaria of Verona, 1460-Poggits, 1459—Aic. Perottus. d. 1480—/Von. Philetphus, 1481—Barth. Ptatina, 1481-Angel Politianus, 1464-94. French—Alain Chartier poet, etc., d. liSS—Corbeuil, satirist, 1460. Rise of the modem Drama: at first mysteries, or representations ol scriptural pieces—the Mystery in Italy—the blysteres ties Con-frame de la Compassion, eb. 1880 In France— the Mysteries In England, Spain, etc.	I.	Early Florentine School: Giov. Cima ' bob, 1240-1300, the father of the moden school of painters. He leaves the style of th* i Greeks, his teachers, studies ancient sta tues, and founds a new school, distinguished for boldness, majesty, and strength—Gi-! otto, 1276-1336, a shepherd boy, whom for his great talents, Cimabue adopted and i taught. He is the first who drew portrait* from life: of his school, a Taddeo Gaddi, d. 1352—Spinbllo of Arbzzo—Simoni di Martino, d. 1344—Lippo Mbmmi— Giorriso (properly Thomaso d% Stefano). 1324-50, distinguished above all his contemporaries by the beauty of his pictures— Andrea di Cione, 1329-89—Masaccio, 1402-43—Fra. Angelico da Fiesole, 1337-1455, and his scholar, Benozzo Goz-zoli, 1469—Fba. Filippo, Lippi, 1400-69 —Domenico Ghiri.andajo, 1491-96— Vrrocchio, 1432-88—Luca Siqnobblli, 1440-1521. Leonardi da Vinci, 1444-1519, sculptor, architect, and painter, discovers perspective— Fra. Bartolommeo, 1469-1617—Mariotto Albbrtinelli, d. 1512 —Andrea del Sarto, 1488-1530— Rosso (Maitre Roux), d. 1541. II.	Early Roman School: Pietro Caval-lini, ab. 1432—Nioolo Alunno, between 1458-1492—Pet PeRugino, 1446-1624, f -under of the Roman school, and teacher of Raphael—Pintueichio, 1454-1513. III.	Early Lombard, Milanese and Bolognese Painters: Andhra Mantegna, 1430-1506—Francesco Morkne, and Gmo-laho dai LiBni, both Veronese, ab. 1500 —Borgoononb (Milan), ab. 1500. IV.	Germans and Flemings: Meistkr Wilhelm of^Cologne, ab. 1380—John van Eyck, 1390 ; ab. 1470 Hubert van Eyck, 1366-1426, fellow-labourers, who lell the gold ground of the Greeks and followed nature—they were the Inventors of painting in oil. Scholars of the brothers Eyck: Roger op Bruges, ab. 1455—Hugo van d. Goes, ab, 1480— Hans Uemling (Memling), ab. 1480—Quentin Mkssis, 1450-1529. V.	Germans: Michael Wolhoemuth, 1434-1519 (teacher of Purer)—Martin, Schongaubr (Schom), d. 1499i—Hans Holbein, the elder. Music, throughout the Middle Ages, was chiefly devoted to the use of the church. The Twelfth to the Fifteenth Century : Profane songs come into use—heroic and love songs of the troubadours, minstrels, minnesingers, etc. These songs were usually accompanied by the harp and viol. 1025 Guido of Arezzo, the greatest musical genius of his age, invents the modern system of musical notation. The representation of notes by dots and lines, the division of the scale into an hexachord, (to which he gave the names of ut, re, me, fa, sol, la; the seventh si, was not added till afterwards,) are usually ascribed to him. 1066 Franco von Cologne was the founder of musical time, which gave riie to counterpoint and fuges. His system was extended and improved by MaBCHETTI of Padua, 1274. John db Muris, ab. 1323, introduces notes of different length into music, and invents the method of distinguishing breves, minims, crochets, quavers, etc. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were the period of grand and simple church music. In the fifteenth began the flourishing period of the Flemish School, which became the pattern and nursery for the rest of Europe. Jac. Obrecht, one of the earliest Flemish composers, teacher of Erasmus (his masses)—Joh. Ockenheim, the Bach of hia time (masses aud motets). Josquin DE Prkz, founder of the French school (chapel-master to Louis XII., and afterwards to the emperor Maximilian), the greatest musical genius of his age (masses and motets). Other Masters of the French School : Pierre de laRue—Ant. BrUmmel— Loyset, and J. Mouton ; the compositions of the two latter are much celebrated. A German School arose: J.Godendach (Bonadies), 1473—Hen. Isaac—Thomas Stolzeh, and Stkph. Mahu (tbe beautiful songs of the two latter). 1470 Bernhard invents the pedal to the organ. in churches. 1473 Printed musical notes. 1484 Franchino Gafubio, organist and professor in the first public school of music at Milan. He studies the works of the ancients—Tinctor his contemporary, at Naples, a considerable composer. Flourishing period of grand and simple cathedral music.	- There can hardly be said to have been 1 any trade in modem Europe prior to the ! Crusades. | After the conqneit of Alexandria by tbe Arabs, 639, ' . Constantinople became tbe great staple for tbe wares of tbe East. In tbe seventh Century, Bagdad became 1 tbe seat of general commerce. Ab. 800 a little trade | in western Europe, mostly conducted by Jews. ‘ Trade of Venice with the East ! Tenth Century: Flourishing period of trade kin Spain with Constantinople and 1 Cairo. -After the crusades, by increased inter-, course with the East, the trade and industry of Venice, Genoa, and Piaa, spread and j ’ flourish. 1101 The citizens of London obtain their first charter from Henry I., and tbe privilege to elect their own sheritt 1154 Bordeaux, belonging to tbe English, enjoys an extensive wine trade. Roger, king of Sicily, introduces the manufacture of silk, 1147—silk manufacture at Lucca, 1224—at Venice and Florence soon after. 1233 First mention of coal at Newcastle, in Northumberland—the tin mines of Cornwall flourish. 1236 Paper money in use in Chin*—it came from tbe east into Italy. [1243 Origin of the Hanseatic league. 1247 League of the cities on the Rhine. Cities increase in power and prosperity by industry, manufactures, commerce, free governments; Cities represented in Parliament: In Portugal, 1800-Franee, 1302—Scotland, 1806— bweden, 1320—English \ parliament divided iuto an upper and lower House, 1313—Castile, 1349. Commerce flourishes in the Italian cities in spite of the troubles and distress occasioned by the struggle of tbe republics— Milan, Lucca, Pisa, Florence, Verona, Bologna, Genoa, and Venice, the most prosperous—they have au extensive trade in the Levant, Hlaek Sea, all over the East, probably as far as China. Flourishing period of wool and linen manufactories I in Flanders and Brabant— the foundaUon of the 1 riehes of the NetUerlauda aud of the great power ol 1 the house or Bnrgundy. Introduction of guild regiments In the cities of Germany and tbe Netherlands for the protection of the citizens against the nobility —Ghent, in its most flourishing period; could raise i 80,000 soldiers—nowhere, except in England, has tbe I (political consideration of guilds aud municipal cor- 1 poratlons, and the respectability of merchants, beeu 1 maintained. First trading company in England, 1319. The Staple Merchants—the second, under Edward, 1358, called at first The Thomas a Becicet Society, but afterwards The Society of Merchant Adventurers. First woollen manufactories in England, b} Flemish refugees, 1331. Interest of money in England 45 per cent., 1807. 1345 First bank at Genoa—ab. 1377, banking establishments at Florence. Great Herring trade of the Hutch : at tbis time very lucrative, as herrings were the common food on fast days. He Wit, in his memoirs, describes this trade as the foundation of tbe after-greatness of Holland. Ab. 1430 England enjoys a considerable trade in the Mediterranean. Florence, under the Medici, becomes 1 the great seat of trade and commerce. Florence was the London of this period —here all great money and mercantile transactions were carried on for the various princes and great merchants of Europe—Italian merchants were to be found in every part of the world. 1450 Most flourishing period of the trade of Flanders: all Euro|>ean nations have warehouses at Bruges and Ghent—Book trade at Mayence, originally connected with printing—Faust, dies at Paris, 1466,, whither he twice journeys to sell his Latinl Bible. | 1464 Post letters in France and England— at first a mere political convenience. 1470 First silk manufactory at Tours in France. 1488-1585 Antwerp's Flourishing Period: from the fall of Bruges, under Maximilian. The discovery of America, 1492, and of the new passage to India, 1498, change the commerce of the world. Rise of the Colonial System : 1419, first Portuguese colonies on tbe coast of Africa. Madeira, etc.— Spanish colonies in America —England: John and Srbas. Caboi discover Newfoundland, and explore the coast of North America, 1497, 8. Lisbon the great seat of trade—that of Venice declines, as do»s the Arabian trade to India.
a	b	c	d
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
OF MODERN HISTORY
CONTAINING
ALL THE GREAT EVENTS OF THE CIVIL, RELIGIOUS, AND LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EUROPEAN NATIONS, AND OF SUCH OTHERS AS ARE CONNECTED WITH THEM,
IN A SERIES OF PARALLEL COLUMNS, SO AS TO PRESENT TO THE READER, AT ONE VIEW, THE TRANSACTIONS AND CONDITION OF THE VARIOUS STATES OF THE CIVILISED WORLD.
OXFORD:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY D. A. TALBOYS,
AND 113, FLEET STREET, LONDON.
M DCCCXXXIX.
24
Table xi.
PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE, SCIENCE, Etc.
Philosophy.
Poetry, etc.
During the centuries of barbarism, the philo30-!*owa'M*/'oe'ry of the Middie Ages begins about, 1096. u	Florentine Scjmi . Giov. Cima-
pbic spirit dwindled to a very slender thread ; butProvence and the south of France was the cradle of bub, 1240-1300, the father of the modern the reign of Charlemagne, and the schools founded	' ’
by him, opened for it a new career.
In these schools, and in the universities, especially of Paris and Oxford, a considerable degree of zeal for science shot forth. An alliance how became formed between Faith, which implicitly re-
ceived the doctrines of the Romish hierarchy, and After	of Guienne we hear of no others till
romance and knightly poetry.
William, duke of Qulenne, b. 1070, d. 1122, was the first of the ProveiifAl troubadours: Fred. Barbarossa, Richard the Lion-hearted, with his celebrated friend and minstrel, Blondel, Roger of Sicily, Alfonso 11. and Peter 11. of Aragon, with numerous other French, Spanish, and Italian princes and nobles, patronised and cultivated the Provencal poetry.
Season, which laboured to investigate the principles of the same truths. The means employed were Logic and Metaphysics, or Dialectics. This was the origin of
The Scholastic Philosophy.
It divides Into four periods, deductble from the history of the question concerning the reality of ideas, and the relations of philosophy to religion.
First period, to the Eleventh Century: A blind realism, which endeavours to apply the elements of philosophy to theology. The attempts of philosophy during this period, under the constraints of the hierarchy, were feeble and imperfect.
Principal torilers: Alenin, bom at York, 736-804—his pupil, Rhabanus Maurus, 776-866, Introduces it into Germany — John Scotns, Erlgena, an Irishman, one of the first writers of the middle ages who dared to think for himself, taught and died at Oxford, 886—Hinanar, bishop of Klieiras—Gerbert (Sylvester II), d. 1003—Iterenger, d. 1088—Lamfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, d. 1089—Hildebcrt of Tours, d. 1131—(Othlo and Honorius, two monks and mystics).
Second Period, from the Eleventh to the Thirteenth Century : First appearance of nominalism, and of a more liberal system of inquiry, which is quickly repressed by the church, which establishes the authority of realism : a closer alliance is formed between philosophy and religion.
Principal writers: Roscellin, canon of Com-peigne, ab. 1089, head of the nominalistand regarded by some as the founder of scholastic philosophy, revives the question as to the reality of universal ideas—St. Anselm, his great adversary,
about the middle of the twelfth century; after which they were very numerous till the close of the thirteenth. In the Norman, or northern French, we have an immense number of poets belonging ti the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries 127 are known by name in the twelfth alone. Thibaui.t, king of Navarre, ab. 1250, is accounted the best as well as noblest of the French poets. Metrical romances: ‘ Havelock the Dane,’ before 1150, translated into English about 1270-90—Robert Wace’s (of Jersey) * Brut d’Angleterre,"' ab.1 1150, a free translation of Jeffrey of Monmouth’* history—ab. 1250, ‘ Le Roman de le Rose,’ by William of Lobris, in 22,000 stanzas; and after this time the ‘ Contes’ and ‘ Fabliaux.’
From Provence the troubadours’ songs spread into Lombardy and the east of Spain, Catalonia and Aragon. In Castile The Cid, ab. 1150—Portuguese poets, equally early, are recorded.
Romance poetry of the Middle Ages flourishes: about 1325,‘The Amadis of Gaul,’ attributed to Pasco Lobeira, a Portuguese—Prince Juan Manuel’s (d. 1362) ‘ Conde Lucan or,’ a book of novels in prose.
The reign of John II., king of Castile, 1407-54, was the golden age of lyric poetry in Spain. The ‘Cancionero General,’ a collection of Spanish poetry, from the age of ‘ Juan de la Mena,’ about 1407 to 1517, contains the productions of 136] poets.
school of painters. He leaves the style of the Greeks, his teachers, studies ancient statues, and founds a new school, distinguished for boldness, majesty, and strength—Giotto, 1276-1336, a shepherd boy, whom for his great talents, Cimabue adopted and taught. He is the first who drew portraits from life: of his school, a Taddeo Gaddi, d. 1352—Spinello of Arbzzo—Simone di Martino, d. 1344—Lippo Memmi-Giottino (properly Thomaso di Stefano), 1324-50, distinguished above all his contemporaries by the beauty of his pictures— Andkea di Cione, 1329-89—Masaccio, 1402-43—Fra. Angelico da Fibsole, 1337-1455, and his scholar, Benozzo Goz-zoli, 1469—Fra. Filippo, Lippi, 1400-69—Domenico Ghiri.andajo, 1491-95— Verocciiio, 1432-88—Luca Signorelli, 1440-1521.
Leonardi da Vinci, 1444-1519, sculptor, architect, and painter, discovers perspective— Fha. Bartolommeo, 1469-1517—Mariotto Albbrtinelli, d. 1512 —Andrea dbl Sarto, 1488-1530— Rosso (Maitre Roux), d. 1511.
II. Early Roman School: Pietro Caval-lini, ab. 1432—Nicolo Alunno, between 1458-1492—Pet PeiIuoino, 1446-1524, f mnder of the Roman school, and teacher of Raphael—Pinturicuio, 1454-1513.
1034-1109—William of Champkau, dies 1120, T n	„	. ,.	. ,	, . . ,t1
w- *«bool oflogic ..P.n.,.W oMreaU	5££
Abelaid, b. 1079, d. 1142, his pupil and opponent, teaches at Paris, and gives a new impulse to scholastic philosophy; Paris becomes another Athens, students flock to it from all parts of the world—Hugh de St. Victor, b. 1096, d. 1140— Robert of Milan, d. 1173—Robert Pulleyn, Englishman, d.ab. 1150—Richard de St. Victor, Scotchman, d. 1173—Peter Lombardus, d. 1164, his book, ‘ Libri Sententiarum,’ gained him the name of ‘ Magister Sententiarum’—John of Salisbury, d. 1180, a great promoter of learning.
Notwithstanding the many absurdities of this age, independence of thought increases, but it la for a time subdued by persecutions, anathemas, and interdictions. The most distinguished leaders of the adverse party were, St. Bernard, b. 1091, d. 1163— Walter, abbot of St. Victor, both mystics.
Third period, about 1240-1350 : Exclusive dominion of realism—complete alliance between the church and Aristotelians.
The works of Aristotle (through the medium of che Arabians), ere widely disseminated—the circle of the sciences, and the field of inquiry become enlarged. Averroes, translator of, and commentator npon, Aristotle.
Principal writers: Alexander of Hales, d. 1245, the first who turned to account the works of the Arabians—William of Auvernk, d. 1249—Michael Scott, translator of Aristotle—Albert thi Great, 1193, d. 1280, dominican and realist— Bonaventura, 1221-74, scholastic and mystic—
poetry falls between 1173-1250—in which time the Swabian dialect became formed.
Henry of Veldek (1170 ?), stands at the head of the Minnesingers. Other celebrated poets of this period are: Gottfried v. Stbasbubg—Wolfram
V.E8CHILBACH—HeINBIC V.OFTEBDINGEN--HART-
mann v. d. Aue—Ulrich v. Lichtenstein—Con-Bad v. WlMZBURQ—and particularly WaLTHER v. d. Vogelweide. The celebrated collection of the knight Ucdier y. Manesse of Zurich, which dates 1313, contains the productions of 1401 poets.
No poetry of the Swabian period is so national as the epic romances; of these the two most celebrated are the ‘ Helden Buch’ (Book of Heroes), and the ‘ Nibelungen Lied’ (Lay of the Nibel-ungs), ab. 1200. German poetry declines with the rise of the Meister^singera. The flourishing period of its popular ballads was about 1476, the war songs of Veit Weber—1483 ‘Til Eulen-spiegel,’ satyres—in 1494 ‘Sebastian Brant— John Gelleb v. Kaiskrsberg, d. 1510—1498 ‘ Reynard the Fox,’ by Heinrich v. Alcmab.
In England the Anglo-Saxon very gradually changed into English: the * Saxon Chronicle’ is continued to 1154 with but little loss of the purity of its language. From 1150 to 1250 what has been called semi-saxon prevailed; in this is written
Painters, Music, Etc.
III. Early Lombard, Milanese <
l Bolog-
Trade and Commerce.
There can hardly be said to have been any trade in modern Europe prior to the Crusades.
After the conquest of Alexandria by the Arabs, 639 Constantinople became the great staple for the warei of the East. In the seventh century, Bagdad becarat the seat of general commerce. Ab. 800 a little trade in western Europe, mostly conducted by Jews.
Trade of Venice with the East
Tenth Century: Flourishing period of trade kin Spain with Constantinople and Cairo.
After the crasades, by increased intercourse with the East, the trade and industry of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, spread and flourish.
1101 The citizens of London obtain their first charter from Henry I., and the privilege to elect their own sheriff
1154 Bordeaux, belonging to the English, 1 enjoys an extensive wine trade.
Roger, king of Sicily, introduces the manufacture of silk, 1147—silk manufacture at Lucca, 1224—at Venice and Florence soon after.
1233 First mention of coal at Newcastle, in Northumberland— the tin mines of Cornwall flourish.
1236 Paper money in use in China—it came
nese Painters: Anduea Manteona, 1430- ^rom east *Dt0 1506—Fkancksco Morkne, and Onto-1] 243 Origin of the Hanseatic league.
- _________ t ...... L...u	i Ann I	Jo/	*/
1247 League of the cities on the Rhine. Cities increase in power and prosperity by industry, manufactures, commerce, free governments.
lamo dai Libri, both Veronese, ab. 1500 —Borgoonone (Milan), ab. 1500.
IV.	Germans and Flemings: Meister Wilhelm OFjCOLOGNE, Hb. 1380— JoUN VAN Eyck, 1390 ; ab. 1470 Uubertvan Eyck, 1366-1426, fellow-labourers, who let! the gold ground of the Greeks and followed nature—they were the Inventora of painting in oil.
Scholars of the brothers Eyck: Roger of Bruges, ab. 1455—Hugo van d. Goes, ab. 1480— Hans Hemlikg {Mending), ab. 1480—Quentin Mkssis, 1450-1529.
V.	Germans: Michael Wolhgbmuth, 1434-1519 (teacher of Purer)—Martin, Scmonoauer {Schoen), d- 1499?—Hans Holbein, the elder.
Cities represented In Parliament: In Portugal, 1300-Franee, 1302—Scotland, 1806—Sweden, 1820—English parliament divined iuto an upper and lower House, 1318—Castile,
Commerce flourishes in the Italian cities in spite of the troubles and distress occasioned by the struggle of the republics— Milan, Lucca, Pisa, Florence, Verona, Bologna, Genoa, and Venice, the most prosperous—they have au extensive trade in the Levant, Blaek sea, all over the East,1 probably aa far as China.
Flourishing
Music, throughout the Middle Ages, was chiefly devoted to the use of the church.
The Twelfth to the Fifteenth Century Profane songs come into use—heroic Ipolitical consideration of guilds and municipal
rishing period of wool and linen manufactories Flanders and Brabant— the foundation of the riches or the Netherlands and of the great power ol the house of Burgundy. Introduction of guild regiments in the citiee of Germany and the Netherlands for the protection of the citizens against the nobility —Ghent, in Its most flourishing period; could raise 80,000 soldiers—nowhere, except In England, has the
Thomas Aquinas, 1224-74,doctor universalis et' Lyamon’s translation of Wace’s ‘Romance of
angelicus, a realist and dominican, founder of the sect of Thomasts—Peter Hispanus, d. 1277-Suns Scotus, native of Northumberland, ab. 1275. d. 1308—Roger Bacon, 1214, d. 1294, he taught at Oxford, opening new paths to inquiry by tilt-study of nature and the languages; perhaps the most learned man of the middle ages—Raymond Lulli, b. 1234, d. 1315—Fa. Mayronis, d. 1325 a Scotist, he founded the celebrated disputations in the Sorbonne.
Oxford, in the thirteenth centnry, only second to Paris in
Brut,’ ab. 1200.
<ome metrical lives of saints, ab. 1250, may be deemed English ; but the first specimen, bearing a precise date, is a proclamation of Henry 111. to the people of Huntingdonshire.
Robert of Gloucister’8 ‘Chronicle,’ after 1297.
Laurence Minot’s poem, ab. 1352, peihsps the first original poet in our language now extant.
John Barbour’s epic of ‘The Bruce,’ ab. 1373.
Blind Harry’s ‘Acts of Wallace’ (1361).
Geof. Chaucer, 1364, the father of English poetry
the number of its students and tlio celebrity of its scholastic tils- T/ium Hnwi-n 1409 Froiw.li 1 .tin Qn J Frwrlwl. putatlons-lt produced an Invincible Hales, an admirable Bacon,	U0WfcB»	Pencil, Latin, and RngllSl.
an excellent, well-grounded Jliddleton, a nubile Scotus, au ap- poet.
proved Burley, a resolute Baconthorpe, a solid Holeot, and a pro ;1 Vision of Piers Plowman,’ by THOMA8 LONGLAND6,
found Bradwardine,	\ ^ 1390	*
Fourth Period ab. 1330-1500: Struggle between1^ *	* the fi„t E lish book was> <Sir John
nomtnahsmmd realism and partial success ofthe MaP deville.g Travels,’ 1356; it was followed bj former-philosophy gradually detached from the- W]CK,IFFE>S .	of the Bible - i383-Tbe'
ology—new disputes grow out of the attempts at reform in both.
visa’s ‘ Version of lligden’s Polvchronicon,’ 1385 —and Chaucer’s ‘ Astrolabe,’ 1392.
Principal writers : G. DuBaND DE St. P0UR9MN contributes to the downfall of realism, but Wil-
! !.?47L^^fai^i8CftII7.j8 .<L0n!iie.r!d In. the fifteenth century English poetry declines
as its conqueror; his opposers were, Walter Burleigh, b. 1275, d. 1337, professor at Oxford— Thomas of Bbadwabdine, abp. of Canterbury, d. 1339—Thomas of Strasburgh, and Marsilius of Inohen, d. 1396, etc.
Celebrated nominalists, after Occam: John Buridan—Peter D'AiUy— Robert Holeot, d. 1949—Gregory of Rimini—Rinhard Swineshcad, taught at Oxford, ab. 1635—and othere.
A spirit of independence and d tendency to enlarged views in Philosophy, show themselves among the nominalists—scholastic philosophy loses ground.
mange, d. 1440-but the man who had the greatest Influence In hie own and succeeding ages was,
Tliomaa a Kempt*, b. 1380, d. 1471. Nearly all these regard revelation aa the ouly true fountain of knowledge and wisdom.
The revival of classical literature deprives scholastic philosophy of all authority.
The works of Aristotle and Plato, In their original form, comi Into repute hy the labours of George Gemisthus Pletho, of Constantinople, at Florence, 1438—of George Scholarius-ol Theodore Gaza, d. ab. 1478—and George of Trebizond, d. 1484-6. Neoplatonic system founded by Nic. Cusa, d. 1464, patronised by Cosmo and Lorenzo de Medici; it flourishes at Florence, where It Is taught by Marcilius Fieinus, 1489 99, a physician, who translates Plato, Plotinus, Jamblichus, Proclus, etc.; liis great work/Tlieologla Platonloa; his disciple, John Picus of ilirandola, 1463-94, endeavours to nolle the philosophy of Arl ] totle, Pythagoras, and Plato with the cabalistlcal writings and revelation; Ills nephew, T. Fr. Pic>zs Sltrand, follows bis steps —both regard the Bible as the only source of trpth, and the Christian religion as the only true philosophy.
Hoccleve—Lydgate—James I. of Scotland.
The Paston Letters,’ 5 vols. 4to., written in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV., proofs ol literary improvement in England.
At the close of this century we may notice, Andrew of Wynton—Will Caxton, first English printer, d. ab. 1491—Lady Juliana Berners, 1481—Stephen Hawes, poet—John Skelton, poet, d 1521 —Will. Dunbar, 1465-1530—Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522.
Italy came last of those countries where Latin had been spoken to the possession of an independent language and literature ; not even a few lines ol Italian have been found earlier than the end of the twelfth century.
The three great Florentines: Dante, 1265-1321, father of modem Italian poetry—Petrarch, 1304-74, re viver of ancient learning, and the first founder and collector o. any considerable library of ancient literature—Boccaccio, 1313*75, father of modem Italian prose.
Sacchetti, follower of Roeeaceio, ab. 1400.
Italian writer*-Puta. poet, 1487-Lorenzo Valla, 1467-Giau. Manetti, 1469—Guaria of Verona, 1460- Poggius, 1459—Lie. Perottus. d. 1480—Fran. Philelphus, 1481—Barth. Ptatina, 1481— Angel Politianus, 1464-94.
French—.dibin Chartier poet, etc., d. 1468—Corbeuil, satirist, 1460.
Rise of the modern Drama: at first mysteries, or representations of scriptural pieces—the Mystery in Italy—the blysteres des Con-frairie de la Compassion, ab. 1380 In France—the Mysteries In England, Spain, etc.
and love songs of the troubadours, minstrels, minnesingers, etc. These songs were usually accompanied by the First trading company in England, 1319.
The Staple Merchants—the second, un-1 der Edward, 1358, called at first The Thomas a Bechet Society, but afterwards The Society of Merchant Adventurers. First woollen manufactories in England, bj Flemish refugees, 1331.
harp and viol.
1025 Guido of Arezzo, the greatest musical genius of his age, invents the modern system of musical notation. The representation of notes by dots and lines, the division of the scale into an hexachord, (to which he gave the names of ut, re, me, fa, sol, la; the seventh si, was not added till afterwards,) are usually ascribed to him.
1066 Franco von Cologne was the founder of musical time, which gave rise to counterpoint and fuges. His system was extended and improved by MaRCHETTI of Padua, 1274.
John de Muris, ab. 1323, introduces
Interest of money In England 45 per cent., 1307.
1345 First bank at Genoa—ab. 1377, banking establishments at Florence.
Great Herring trade cf the Butch : at this time very lucrative,as herrings were the common food on fast days. De Wit, in his memoirs, describes this trade as the foundation of the after-greatness of Holland.
,	. y a ,;	■ ,	, Ab. 1430 England enjoys a considerable
note, of different length into oiubic, end trI<k lbe
invents the method of distinguishing breves, minims, crochets, quavers, etc. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were the period of grand and simple church music.
In the fifteenth began the flourishing period of the Flemish School, which became the pattern and nursery for the rest of Europe.
Jac. Obrecht, one of the earliest Flemish composers, teacher of Erasmus (his masses)—Joh. Ockenheim, the Bach of his time (masses and motets).
J06QU1N de Prez, founder of the French school (chapeUmaster to Louis XII., and afterwards to the emperor Maximilian), the greatest musical genius of his age (masses and motets). Other Masters of the French School: Pierre de laRue—Ant. BrUmmel— Loyset, and J. Mouton ; the compositions of the two latter are much celebrated.
A German School arose: J. Godendach (Bonadies), 1473—Hen. Isaac—Thomas Stolzeh, and Steph. Mahu (the beautiful songs of the two latter).
1470 Bernhard invents the pedal to the organ.
Organs and instrumental music corns into general i/i churches.
1473 Printed musical notes.
1484 Franchino Gafubio, organist and professor in the first public school of music at Milan. He studies the works of the ancients—Tinctor his contemporary, at Naples, a considerable composer.
Flourit
Florence, under the Medici, becomes the great seat of trade and commerce.
Florence was the London of this period —here all great money and mercantile {transactions were carried on for the various princes and great merchants of Europe—Italian merchants were to be found every part of the world.
1450 Most flourishing period ofthe trade of Flanders : all European nations have warehouses at Bruges and Ghent—Book trade at Mayence, originally connected with printing—Faust, dies at Paris, 1466,! whither he twice journeys to sell his Latinl Bible.
1464 Post letters in France and England— at first a mere political convenience.
1470 First silk manufactory at Tours in France.
1488-1585 Antwerp’s Flourishing Period. from the fall of Bruges, under Maximilian.
The discovery of America, 1492, and of the new passage to India, 1498, change the commerce of the world.
Rise of the Colonial System : 1419, first Portuguese colonies on the coast of Africa Madeira, etc.— Spanish colonies in America —England: John and Sebas. Cabot discover Newfoundland, and explore the coast of North America, 1497, 8.
Lisbon the great seat of trade—that ol Venice declines, as do»* the Arabian trade to India.
b
d
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
OF MODERN HISTORY
CONTAINING
ALL THE GREAT EVENTS OF THE CIVIL, RELIGIOUS, AND LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EUROPEAN NATIONS, AND OF SUCH OTHERS AS ARE CONNECTED WITH THEM,
IN A SERIES OF PARALLEL COLUMNS, SO AS TO PRESENT TO THE READER, AT ONE VIEW, THE TRANSACTIONS AND CONDITION OF THE VARIOUS STATES OF THE CIVILISED WORLD.
OXFORD:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY D. A. TALBOYS,
AND 113, FLEET STREET, LONDON.
M DCCCXXXIX.
26
Table xii.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Sixteenth
PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION : LUTHER, ZUINGLIUS, CALVIN, ETC.
1500
Portugal.
Britain.		France.
Scotland.	England.	House of Valois.
1510
1520
Emmanuel^-1521
1501 Discovery of St. Helena and of Greenland by Corte-real.
Portuguese conquests in the East.
1503 Conquest of Cochin.
1506	Violent dissensions of old and new Christians: the latter admitted to common rights, 1507.
1507	Ceylon discovered by Almeyda.
1508	Mozambique settled. XLapld extension
Venice stirs up the sultan of Egypt to assist the natives against the Portuguese—defeat of the combined fleets ofGuzerat and Egypt, 1509. of Portuguese power
1510 Sumatra discovered— Albuquerque viceroy—Goa seat of government.—Malacca and Java disc., 1511. Ormuz and Muscat occupied.—Death of Alb. 1515.
In India.
1515 The Portuguese officers first trade on their own account, whence final ruin of their trade.
1517 Commercial treaty with China, settlement of Macao —of Aden on the Red sea, 1518—of Colombo in Ceylon, 1519.
Commerce
1520 Discovery of Pegu and Siam.
greatly extended John III., son, 1521-57.
by relations
Contlnnal wars with the Moors in North Africa absorb the wealth derived from India.
James IV. —1513.
House of Tudor.
Henry VII. —1509.
1501 Marriage of Arthur, prince of Wales,	England begins to recover from
with Catharine of Spain—death of the the wars of the Roses, and to reprince, 1502.	same a place in European politics.
1503 Marriage of James with the princess Margaret of England, whence the succession of the House of Stuart to the English throne.—Treaty with England: the first since that of Northampton, 1332.
The power of the crown becomes established
1503 Death of queen Elizabeth.
1504-5 Introduction of forced loans, called benevolences.
Conspiracy of the duke of Suffolk,
1505.
1506 Visit of the archduke Philip, king of Castile, to England.
Louis XII. —1515.
Parliaments of Rouen, 1400—of Aix, 1501.
1500	Treaty with Ferdinand of Aragon for the conquest and partition of Naples.
1501	War with Ferdinand in Naples—ceded to Spain by treaty of 1505.
1505 Proposed cession of Burgnndy and Bretagne
1506 Forfeiture of the Lord of the Isles—Hebrides annexed to.Scotland.
[Order of the Thistle.]
Interval of peace and prosperity : cultivation of letters and agriculture : amelioration of laws and commerce.
during this reign, but the avarice and extortion of the king and his ministers, Empson and Dudley, render him odious—he is said to have left in ready money £1300,000, an incredible sura for those days. The power of the nobility, broken by the long wars, and by the power now granted them of alienating their estates, is insufficient to control the king.
Powers of the court of Star Chamber arbi-
James V. s. 1513-42, one year old.
Duke of Albany, grandson of James II. regent.
The country distracted by the feuds of the nobility.—The regent introduces French troops, an unpopular measure.
Great power of the Dou-
flasses of the Angus ranch—they wage a feudal war with the Hamiltons, 1520.
1508 League of Cambray against Venice—battle of Agnadello gained by Louis in person, 1509.
Muoh
1510 The king summons a council at Tours to sup-support him against the Holy League.
1512	Battle of Ravenna: victory and death of Gaston de Foix, Due de Nemours.
1513	Defeat of Novara by the Swiss—loss of Milan and Genoa.—Invasion of Burgundy by Swiss and Germans, and siege of Dijon.
of the
France attacked on all sides, and almost driven out of Italy, obliged to conclude disadvantageous treaties.—Peace of Blois with Venice and the Pope. 1513 Poll tax imposed by parliament for French war—Invasion of France—
French defeated at Guinegate, “ Battle of the Spurs,”—Fleet under Sir Edw.
_	Howard—nothing effected against France.
1513 Duke of Suffolk executed.	wealtb
1514 Peace with France— Toumay ceded to England—Louis marries princess Mary, Henry’s sister.
Francis I., Count d’Angoulime, 1515-47. (great-great grandson of Charles V.)
Offices publicly sold to defray the expenses of the Italian
trary.
First ship of royal navy, the Great Harry, cost £14,000.
Henry VIII., son, 1509-47, heir of both York and Lancaster. Punishes Empson and Dudley—marries Arthur’s widow—joins the League of Cambray against Venice, 1509.
1512 Alliance with Spain and the Pope against France—useless expedition to Fontarabia—indecisive sea-fight off Brest.
Naval force—building of the Great Michael.
1512	Border skirmishes —Barton the privateer captured by the English.
1513	Alliance, offensive and defensive, with France, against England•
Invasion of England—Battle of Flodden, Sept. 9th, 10,000 Scots killed, with the king and the flower of the nobles and gently.— Peace with England.	-----
Ministry of Wolsey.
1515 Wolsey chancellor and cardinal, possesses great authority—papal legate, 1518.
1518 Jealousies between France and England arranged—Tournay restored to France on payment of a sum of money.
Bnfflandf bolding the balance of power between France and •Charles V„ becomes Important In Hnrope.
1520 The Emperor visits England.—Magnificent meeting of Henry and Francis at the 4‘ Field of Gold” at Ardres. Henry attempts unsuccessfully to mediate between Charles and Francis.	Francis an unsuccessful candidate for the Empire
1515	Francis invades Italy in person—decisive vic-
tory of Marignano over the Swiss—Genoa and Milan submit „	, „	.
Havre de Grace founded, 1516.
1516	Concordat with the Pope in place of the Pragmatic Sanction—bishops dependent on the king.
1516 Treaty of Noyon with Spain: and “ Paix per-petuelle” of Fribourg with Switzerland.
Pnrrlanr!___war pidly, fostered by (lie remnants of the
tngiana war j^I|ards. opposcd by Henry,whowrites >n the seven Sacraments against
against Charles V.
1521	First war with Charles V., to 1526.
First public debt, 200,000 livres borrowed from the city of Paris.
1522	Swiss and French defeated at Bicocca—the constable Bourbon goes over to the enemy, 1523.
France. Angus regent
1530
1540
30,000 persons destroyed in Lisbon by an earthquake.
and Japan;
1522 Xavier plants Christianity in India, and also
1526 The Inquisition introduced in spite of the opposition of the nobles, to whose power it gives the last blow —persecution and expulsion of the Jews—extended to India.
by numerous
1529 Moluccas ceded by Spain for a sum of money. and large
1529 Xavier preaches in Japan—dies, 1552.
colonies
1531 Surat sacked by Silvey-ra—occupation of Diu , 1533.
Progress of the Portuguese in the Dekkin.
1538 An Othman force from Egypt besieges Diu without
The Douglasses usurp the whole authority, and restrain the person of the king—they are defeated and driven out of Scotland, 1528.
The king chastises the borderers.
Interval of tranquillity.
1531 Court of Session of 15 judges established.
1550
1540 Introduction of Jesuits.
Usbon the market of the world.
University of Lisbon removed to Coimbra, 1340.
1542 Commercial treaty with Japan.
The prosperity of Portugal at Its greatest height.
Colonization of Brazil—San Salvador, capital, founded 1549.
1548 Orange-trees first introduced into Europe.
Greatest extent of Indian Hmplre.
1536 James marries Magdalene of France: she dies, 1537. — James marries, 2ndly, Mary of Guise.
Ministry of the two Archbps. Beaton, uncle and nephew.
Spread of the Reformat tion : the Protestants persecuted; seven burnt for heresy, 1539.
Knox leader of the reformers, 1547.
The king virtually absolute i
•Fruitless invasions of Picardy by the English, and of Champagne by Charles V., 1523.
of France
ray t V., 1
1321 Execution of the doke of Buckingham.
1522 Charles V. ; o
with France at his instigation—Earl of Surrey invades France, but no results.
1522	War with England—Albany invades England with 60,000 men, but retires shamefully before the earl of Surrey—Peace.
1523	Albany returns to ^3 The demand of a subsidy of 800,000/. for the French war refused by the Commons—the duke of Suffolk invades France, and threatens Paris.—
Peace, 1525, from fear of Charles’s too great predominance.
1327 First attempt to discover a North-west passage.	the parliament
1527 Henry offended at the Pope’s reluctance to grant a divorce from Catharine.	Fall of Wolsey, 1529—dies, 1530.
a mere lnatrumenti
1527 England joins France in the “ Holy League” against the increasing power of the Emperor. 1529 General peace, “ La paix des Dames,” at Cambray, between England, France, and the Empire. Sir Thomas More lord chancellor. Illegal Imposition of taxes 1
1524	Invasion of Provence by Charles V., and fruitless siege of Marseilles.
1525	Francis defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia —cedes, by the treaty of Madrid, 1526, Burgundy, Flanders, and Milan, but is absolved by the Pope from fulfilling his engagements.
vainly
Rise of Cranmer archbp. of Canterbury.
Commencement of the
Beformation.	discontent of the people.
1532 The king marries Anne Boleyn—birth of Elizabeth, afterwards queen, 1533.
1534 Final breach with the Pope—the king sole head of the church.
Ministry of Cromwell, created	Violent relig ious dissensions
earl of Essex.	and persecution.
1534	Rebellion of the Fitz-Geralds in Ireland; suppressed.—English laws extended to Wales.
1535	Bp. Fisher and Sir Thomas More beheaded, for denying the king’s supremacy.—Henry excommunicated by pope Paul III.
spent
1527 Second war with Charles V., to the peace of Cambray,1529—Francis marries Eleanor, Charles’s sister, 1530—Burgundy given up to France.
1529 First negotiations with the Porte—alliancel536. in
Great encouragement given to Artsand Sciences—various palaces built, and the Louvre commenced.
1536 Death of queen Catharine.—Accusation and execution of queen Anne,— The king marries Jane Seymour—birth of Edward, Prince of Wales, and death of queen. Jane, 1537.
1536 Suppression of the smaller monasteries.—First complete translation of the Bible.— Discontent of the people at the despotism of the king and suppression of the monasteries produces partial revolts.—Insurrection of the northern gentry, called the " Pilgrimage of Grace"—suppressed, 1537.
1538 Suppression of the remaining monasteries.—The " Six Articles" established as a rule of faith.
Proclamation* by the king declared to have the force of law, 1539,-(repealed, 1547.)
The religious waverings of the king cause continual persecution.
Anne of Cloves queen, divorced 1540.—Catharine Howard queen, beheaded, 1542.—Catharine Parr queen, 1543.
1540 Disgrace and execution of Cromwell. Execution of the countess of Salisbury, the last of the line of Plantagenet.
Church property everywhere confiscated.
Knights of St. John dissolved.
1542 War with England—dissensions in the Scotch army—
Rout of Solway Moss—James dies of a broken heart.
Mary, 1542-66. only surviving child, a week old.
Earl of Arran regent.
Henry wishes to marry his son Edward to the queen of Scots—frustrated by cardinal Beaton. Edinburgh taken by the English, 1544.
Peace with France and Scotland, 1545.
1546 Arbitrary execution of the earl of Surrey. First le8»' «‘e °f interest fixed
1531	Imprimerie Royale established, other presses prohibited.
1532	Bretagne finally incorporated with France.— Alliance with the German Protestants.
Calvin preaches in France—in Geneva, 1535. for
1534	New organisation of the army into seven legions of 6000 each.
1535	Francis seizes Savoy, and lays fresh claim to Milan on the death of Francesco Sforza—hence arises
power
1536	Third war with Charles V., who invades Provence, and besieges Marseilles—10 years’ truce concluded at Nice, 1538.—Interview of Charles and Francis at Aigucs Mortes.
1540 Charles V. entertained at Paris.
1546	Murder of cardinal Beaton by the master of Rothes.
1547	Somerset invades Scotland, and defeats the Scots at Pinkie, 10,000 Scots killed,
1542 Fourth war with Charles V., from the murder of two French envoys.—Alliance with Denmark and Sweden: the first with the Northern powers. 1543 Alliance with the Emperor against France—schemes of dividing France—
Henry invades France in person, and takes Boulogne, 1544.—French fleet off the Isle of Wight, 1545, gains a naval victory over the English.
Italy.
1544	Victory of Cerisolles inltaly—peace of Crespy —France gives up Italy.
1545	Persecution of the Vaudois.
1646 Revenue of France 16 millions of livret.
at 10/. per cent.
Edward VI., only son, 1547-53.
Duke of Somerset, the king’s uncle, regent 1547-0 Formal
promoted by Cranmer, opposed by Gardiner and
1548 The young queen sent to France: 6000 French troops sent to Scotland.
1548 Dissensions in the council — Lord Seymour, the regent’s brother,
attainted and executed.
Discontent and insurrections of the common people, 1548-9. War with France for Boulogne. 1549 Somerset resigns—Ascendency of Dudley, carl of Warwick, afterwards duke of Northumberland.
English invasion: fruitless.
1550 Peace with England.
Henry II., son, 1547-59. marries in 1533 the famous Catharine de Medici.
The continual cabals of the court distract the kingdom by the intrigues of favourites and mistresses, especially Diana of Poitiers.
[1548 6000 troops under d’Ess£ sent to Scotland. 1550 Peace—Boulogne given up to France.
b
d
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
27	29
PERIOD OF ITALIAN WARS, 1492-1515. RIVALRY OF CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I., 1515-1556.
Italy.
Naples & Sicily.
Church History and Popes.
Spain.
! Netherlands.
Lombardy and Genoa : Savoy.
Venice.
Papal States and Florence.
Ludovico Sforza in Milan, restored 1500— captured and sent to France —dies, 1510.
1501 Appoint- 1502 Movement ment of three	in Florence in
state-inquisi-	behalf of Pietro
tors from the	Medici—sup-
council of ten.	pressed by aid
of the French.
The power of Venice declines after the discovery of the passage round the Cape to
Machiavelli, secretary of state, died 1S27.
1507 Revolt of the Genoese roond^Capeto 1503_13 xhe commons agst.	'	papacy assumes
the nobles- 1/503 Acqui8i_ a warlike cha-the French ex- tion 0f Rimini meter under Ju-pelled-Louts on the fei)ure liusIL: hisd.s-XII. enters 0ftheMalates- P?tes Wllh Ve-Genoa, 1507, tafamily;and nice relative to restores the no- ofothertowng Romagna lead bles, and builds in Romagna. to the a citadel.	B
1800 league of Cambray i Naples, France, the Pope, and the Emperor, against Venice.
1509 Venetians defeated at Agnadello— Peace, 1510.
1509 Pisa finally taken by the Florentines. 1810 Holy league formed by the Pope for the expulsion of die French from Italy.
Jui.
son of Lorenzo de Medici, restored, 1512-15.
1512	The French expelled from Genoa fie from Milan by the Swiss, who bring in Maximilian Sforza—Battle of Ravenna; the Spani ards defeated by the French.
1513	Sfoiza defeats the French at Novara.
1515 Victory of Ma-rignano—the French reoccupy Milan and
Ferdinand the Catholic, —1516.
1501 Treaty of partition with Fiance broken— French expelled by Gonsalvode Cordova, 1501-4.
Battle of Cerignola, 1503.
1504	Unsuccessful attempts to introduce the Inquisition at Naples.
1505	Ferdinand marries Germaine de Foix as a second wife, and the French claim toNaples given up as her dowry. Gradual augmentation
of taxes—Discontent. 1507 Coronation of Ferdinand.
1510 Inquisition again unsuccessfully attempted—The Jews expelled.
1513 Palermo made the capital of Sicily— Inquisition established in Sicily.
1516 Revolts in Sicily.
Alexander VI. (Borgia), —1503.
Pius III. (Piccolomini), nephew of Pius II., 1503, a month.
Julius II. (de la Rovere) 1503-13.
The warlike and intriguing apirlt of thle Pope, who forsook the character of a prelate for that of a temporal prince, gave a fatal blow to the already tottering spiritual power of the papacy, and paved the way for the reformation. He reunited the papal territories by
Genoa.
Rome under Leo X. becomes the chief seat of literature and the fine arts.
Peace of Blois. Lorenzo,son ofPietro de Medici,1515-19 Cardin alde Medici 1519,
(becomes pope Clement VII. 1523)holds rule conjointly with Alexander, a natural son of Lorenzo.
1521 Parmaand Placentia annexed to the territories of the Pope, till 1545,
Cn arles, Emperor, and kiDg of Spain, grandson, 1516-55. 1517 Tumults in Palermo suppressed.
1521	The Spaniards
take Milan from the	me T
French.	Pope, till 1545.	1524 Lannoy thes vice-
roy mortgages the re-
1522	Victory of Bicocca—tlte French driven from venues to raise money
Italy—Genoa stormed	—fruitless invasion of
by the Spaniards—	the French under
Francis Sforza, bro-	Stuart, d. of Albany,
ther of Maximilian, in Milan.
1524 The French recover Milan for the
fifth time.	1526 Invasion by the Pope—he con-
cludes peace with Lannoy, 1527, but too late to save Rome.
1525	The victory of Pavia gives Spain the ascendency in Italy.
1526	Bourbon made duke of Milan by the Emperor —killed at the storming of Rome, 1527,
1527 The French retake Genoa—but are finally expelled 1528 by Andrew Doria— establishment of an aristocratic republic, with biennial doges.
1529 Francis Sforza restored in Milan: dies without issue 1535, when Milan becomes a Spanish province.
1527 The Medici ex-
Eelled from Florence y the democrats.
1530 Siege of Florence—the Medici forcibly restored by the Imperialists.
Booby of Tuscany
Alexander de Medici, first duke, 1531-37, murdered.
1530 Charles V. crowned at Bologna, the last imperial coronation in Italy.
1532 Ancona subject to the Pope.
1535 Savoy seized by
France—Geneva and	Cosmo de Medici
the Valais join the	(theGreat), 1537-74.
Swiss confederation.	defeat of the demo-
''	cratic partyat Monte-
Murlo, and death of Philip Strozzi.
1538-40 Many of the Venetian possessions in the Archipelago and Morea lost to the Porte—Malvasia and Napoli, the only fortresses remaining in the Morea, ceded 1540.
1527	The kingdom overrun by the French under Lautrec—their fleet defeated by Doria.
1528	They besiege Naples—retreat without success.
1530 Malta given to the expelled knights of Rhodes (held till 1798).
1532 Defence of the castle of St. Elmo against the French by the viceroy Toledo.
1535 20,000 Christian captives from Tunis released by Charles at Naples.
1537 Apulia ravaged by the Turkish fleets.
1508 Bull of dispensation for Henry VIII. of England to marry his brother’s widow; the origin of the English reformation.
1511 Council of Pisa assembled under the influence of the king of France to check the papal usurpations—Later an Council, 1512-16, called in opposition by the Pope; abolishes the Pragmatic Sanction in France, and substitutes a Concordat, restoring the first-fruits to the Pope, but giving the king the nomination to benefices: this is opposed by the French clergy.
Leo X.(de Medici) 1513-22.
A munificent patron qf literature and arte.
1517 Thirty-one cardinals made at one time.
The sale qf indulgences by the Dominicans authorised in order to raise money for St. Peter’s—The abuse of this privilege by Tetzcl in Germany rouses the opposition of Martin Luther, who, supported by the duke of Saxony, defies the Pope, and burns the bull of excommunication at Wittenberg, 1520.
Commencement of the Reformation
by Luther in Germany, and by Ulric Zuinglius (1519) of Zurich in Switzerland. Luther’s doctrines condemned by the Diet of Worms, 1521, but diffused rapidly in Germany by Carlo-stadius, Melanchthon, Bucer, etc.—Eckius and cardinal Cajetan the principal advocates of the Pope, 1520.
Adrian VI. (tutor of Charles V.), 1522-3.
Clement VII. (de Medici,) cousin of Leo X., 1523-34.
Xavier, the apostle of the Indies, 1522-52.
New monastic orders sanctioned—Theatins,1524, Capuchins, 1525.
1526	The Pope heads the “ Holy League” against the Emperor—Rome sacked, and the Pope made prisoner, 1527, by the Imperialists under Bourbon, who falls in the assault.
1526 Luther marries a converted nun.
1527-34 Henry VIII. of England in vain negotiates for a divorce from Catharine of Spain, his brother’s widow.
1529 The German reformers called Protestants from protesting against the decree of the Diet of Spires—Confession oj Augsburg drawn up as their rule of faith by Melanchthon.
1527	Lutheranism tolerated in Denmark and Sweden—formally established in Sweden, 1531, by the exertions of Olaus Petri—in Denmark, 1539—six Swiss cantons reformed by Zuinglius and (Ecolampadius, 1528—The Protestants in France for the present kept down by persecution.
Paul III. (Farnese), 1534-50.
1534 Henry VIII. of England throws off hi: spiritual allegiance to Rome, and declares himself head of the English church.
Aragon.
Ferdinand-1516, St Isabella -1504.|
1500 Conquest of Naples by Fr. and Spaniards.:
1502 Compulsory baptism of the Moslems : consequent revolts.
War with France in Naples.
Joanna 8t Philip
1505 Ferdinand	of Austria, 1504,
m. Germaine de succeed Isabella in Foix, niece of Castile.
Louis XII. of 1506 Philip dies France, and has —Joanna,an idiot, Naples ceded as dies 1555. her dowry.	Charles, 1505-
55, son, jointly with his mother Joanna.
1507 Ferdinand acknowledged as regent for his grandson Charles by the Cortes of Castile.
Ministry of cardinal Ximenes.
(Universities of Compostella and Alcala.)
1509-10 Oran and Bugia taken by Card. Xim.—Algiers, etc., tributary.
Philip —1506, becomes king of Castile on the death of Isabella, 1504, in right of his wife Joanna.
Margaret of Austria regent for her nephew Charles, 1506-30.
The real authority held by the senate of Ghent.
The Netherlands, though forming but one state under a common head, had each its own constitution, assembly of states, and several a ' stadtholder.
General assemblies of all the states were frequently held.
The seventeen provinces, united 1536, were:
The four duchies qf Brabant,
Limburg,
Luxemburg,
Getderland;
The seven counties qf Flanders,
Artois,
Hainault,
1536 Publication of the bull “In Can& Domini” for the assertion of the papal authority—the Pope endeavours to assemble a general council at Mantua or Vicenza, but fails.
1534-5 Excesses of the Anabaptists in Germany -Agricola starts the Antinomian doctrines, 1538.
1540 The investiture of Milan conferred by Charles V. on his son Philip.
1543	Siege of Nice by the French and Turkish fleets.
1544	Battle of Ceri-solles.
1545	Council of Trent,
1547 Conspiracy of Fieschi, count ofLa-vagna, to become absolute in Genoa frustrated by his accidental death.
1543 The Spanish garrisons withdrawn from Tuscany, on payment of 150,000 gold crowns to the Emperor.
Restoration of the university of Pisa.
the last general council, meets. 1545 Parma and Placentia erected into a duchy for Pietro Farnese, natural of pope Paul III.— he is assassinated, 1547, and the duchies seized by the Emperor.
1548 Leghorn made
__________a free port.
1543 The Turkish fleet under Barbarossa burns Rheggio—appears at the mouth of the Tiber, and besieges Nice in concert with the French.
New attempts to introduce the Inquisition.
1547 Revolts in Naples —suppressed.
1508 Ferdinand joins the League of Cambray against Venice.
1510 Holy League against France.
1512 Conquest and final incorporation of Spanish Navarre, from John d’Al-bret.	Battle qf Ravenna.
1513 Peace of Blois with France.
Charles king of all Spain and the Netherlands,
1516-55.
Ximenea regent—controls the nobles by burgher	Zealand,
troops—forbids the sale of papal indulgences Namur,
—dies, 1517.	Zutphen ;
1516	Ineffective treaty of Noyon with France.
1517	Charles first visits Spain—unpopularity of his Flemish ministers.
1519	Charles Emperor—but obliged to
declare Spain independent of the em- ^iXerp; * ^ pire—goes to Germany.
1560 Conquest of Mexico.
1520	Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile, Valencia, and Majorca, under Padilla—suppressed, 1522.—Charles in Spain, 1522-9.
Rivalry of Spain and France heplns,
1521-6 First French war:—Congress of Bruges, treaty be-The French invade Navarre, repulsed, tween Charles and
1524 Concordat with the Pop*— bishops dependent on the king.
1525	Battle of Pavia—Francis I. of France prisoner—Treaty of Madrid,
1526, makes
The Spanish power snpreme in Italy.
1526 Inquisition introduced, but abolished, 1531.
1526	Charles marries Isabella of Portugal.
Reunion of Utrecht
Second French war, 1527-9,	and Overyssel,
from breach of treaty of Madrid by	1527‘
France—Italy theatre of war.	_	. j
J	The Netherlands
1527	The Cortes of Castile refuse to neutral by commer-
grant supplies for foreign wars.	cial treaty, 1528,
Tumults from oppression of Moots. with England.
1529 Treaties qf Cambray with France, and qf Barcelona with the Pope.
France keeps Burgundy, cedes Flanders, fitc.
1535 Charles reduces Tunis to tribute. Mary, sister of Charles V., regent,
Conquest of Peru, 1533.	1531-55.
Mechlin,
Friesland,
litrecht,
Groningen, and
Overyssel;
Cambray,
Franche Comte.
Henry of England concluded by Wolsey.
1540	The order of Jesuits, founded five years before by Ignatius Loyola, finally approved and sanctioned by the Pope.
1541	Calvin heads the church of Geneva; which causes a division of the reformers into Lutheran and Calvinist, or Reformed Churches.
1542	Council of Trent (the last general council) summoned, not acknowledged by the Protestants —meets 1545, anathematizes most of the Lutheran doctrines, declares the Apocrypha of equal authority to the other Scriptures, and confirms most of the abuses which had crept into the church— is translated to Bologna 1547, under pretence of the plague.
1545	The Pope makes his son duke of Parma.
1546	Death of Luther.
1546-7 Religious war of the Smalkaldists in Germany—unfavourable to the Protestants.
1548 Imperial decree of the Interim promulgated at the Diet of Augsburg, for the temporaiy re-gulation of religious matters._________
1536 Acquisition of Milan on the death Progress of the of Francis Sforza; thence	Anabaptists, 1535
—suppressed, 1536.
Third French war, 1536-8,
in Italy—Congress of Nice, 1538, between the Emperor, King, and Pope—Ten years’ truce, each to keep what he had, 1538.
Spain
Discontent at the taxes for German 1539 Revolt of and Italian wars: hence	Ghent caused by the
1539 Dissolution of Castilian Cortes—nobles	e?y a suDSldy
and clergy excluded henceforward—only 36 reduced by the Lm-procuradoreB from towns—king virtually ab- peror, and stripped aolnte in Castile.	**	,	, ,.rr
predominate*	a ^ Pnvi e8es-
1541 Ill-fated armament against Algiers commanded by Charles.
The French attempt to recover power in Italy: hence In the
Fourth French war, 1542-4—terminated by peace of Crespy, 1 j44, which establishes the preponderance of Spain.
1543 Philip regent of Spain.
1547 First fleet of galleons to Seville.
The power of the prince much restrained by the assemblies of states, snd still more by the spirit of the people, in whom commerce, prosperity, and wealth had inspired a love of liberty, snd hatred of despotism.
1548 Philip acknowledged as heir by the Flemings.
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
1550
Zb
28
Continuation op Table xii.
SYNCHRONISITCAL TABLES
The Sixteenth
RELIGIOUS TROUBLES IN GERMANY, ETC. TURKISH WARS.
1500
Switzerland.
Germany.
! Bohemia.
Hungary.
Norway & Denmark. Sweden.
Prussia.
1510
1520
1530
1540
1550
1501 Basle &Schaff-hausen join the confederacy.
Jealousies between the aristocratic and democratic cantons
—	discontent and revolts of peasantry against government
—	the intercourse with Italy begins to corrupt the ancient simplicity of manners—decay of a-griculture, etc.
1510 Alliance with the Pope against France.
1512	The Swiss invade the Milanese, and restore Max. Sforza.
1513	Defeat the French at Novara; invade Burgundy, and besiege Dijon.
1514	Mulhausen under the protection of the league.
1515	Defeated by the French at Ma-rignano, Sept 13 and 14.—Treaty of Milan with France (called, la paix per-petuelle) renewed at Fribourg 1516, the basis of all subsequent treaties.
1519-23 Protestantism introduced at Zurich by Zuin-glius.—Oppression of the duke of Savoy in Geneva.
1521 Alliance offensive and defensive with France, and the free right of levying Swiss troops given.
1525 Religious disputes as to the eu-
Maximilian I.-1519.
1501 First institution of the Aulic council.
1502 University of WittenJburg.
Imperial police : regular tribunals established for causes both between minor states and individuals.
1500 University qf Frankfort-on- Oder.
1508 Maximilian enters Italy in order to be crowned by the Pope—forcibly refused passage through the Venetian territory—styles himself “ Emperor elect of the Romans.”
Joins the League of Cambray (Pope, France, and Spain) against Venice.
1511	Forms a wild design of being nominated coadjutor and successor to the Pope!
1512	Division of the Empire into ten circles (including Burgundy)—The functions of the Imperial Chamber and the Aulic Council finally determined.
1513	Joins the Holy League formed by the Pope against France, and joins the English army in Picardy as a volunteer.
VLADI8LAS II.-1516.
1516 Unsuccessful invasion of Milan—deserted by the Swiss— peace with France.
1516 Turbulence of Ulric duke of Wur-temburg, who is put to the ban of the Em-
Cire, and stripped of is dominions.
1517 Commencement of the Reformation.
Luther summoned before the Diet of Augsburg, 1518, by the legate cardinal Cajctan, but supported by Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony.
1519	Death of Maximilian : the kings of Prance and Spain candidates: the electors offer the imperial crown to Frederick of Saxony, but he refuses in favour of
Charles V. king of Spain, grandson, 1519-58.
Obliged to sign the first Capitulation with the electors, securing the privileges and immunities of the electors, princes, and free cities—the non-introduction of foreign troops into the empire, etc. etc.—a form signed by all succeeding emperors: —is crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1520, and first assumes the title of Majesty.
1520	Luther bums the Papal bull at Wittenburg.
1498	or 1501	Publication of the code entitled
nf the	Jut Consuetudinarium	Hun-
7,	A... .	gariat.
nobles of Silesia first summoned.
1501 Alliance with Ve-,	nice, and victory	over
the Turks in Bosnia.
Louis, 1509, Frequent insurrections three years old, of the peasantry against crowned at the oppression of the Prague by com- nobles, mand of his father.
1514 Crusade declared against the Turks, but the levies revolt against the magnates — truce with the Turks, 1515.
Louis II., 1516-26. succeeds his father at the age of ten years, under the tutelage of the Emperor and the king of Poland.
Anarchy from the king’s minority : the palatines and vaivodcs jealous of the influence and power of the bishops.
1521 Marriage with Mary, daughter of the archduke Philip of Austria.
War with the Turks, and loss of Belgrade, Salan-kaman, and other fortresses.
1521 Marriage of the Archduke Ferdinand to Anne, sister of Louis—whence the accession of Hungary and Bohemia to the House of Hapsburg.
Advance of Protestantism in Geneva, and several cantons.
1529 Valais joins the confederacy.
Church of Basle regulated by (Eco-lampadlus.
1531 Zuinglius killed by the catholics in the battle of Cappel.
1534 The duke of Savoy attempts to recover Geneva, which then expels the bishop, and proscribes Catholicism — War of Berne with Savoy.—University of Lausanne.
Calvin head of the Genevese church; —founds the university 1539.
Geneva becomes the focus of Protestantism and of practical republicanism.
1521 Diet of Worms—Luther put to the ban of the Empire, but protected by his own party.
War with Trance.
1522-9 Charles in Spain—his brother Ferdinand president of the council of regency during his absence.
1525 General insurrections of the peasantry, in Suabia, Saxony, and Thuringia, under Thomas Miinzer: suppressed 1526.
1526 Charles marries Isabella of Portugal.
Death of Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony.
1549 Renewal of French treaty—finally sanctioned by all but Berne and Zurich.
1526 Connection of Bohemia and Hungary with the dominions of the House of Hapsburg.
1527 First Protestant University founded at Marburg.
1529 The Turks invade Germany from Hungary, and besiege Vienna.
Diet of Spires—Name of Protestants first ap-applied to the Lutherans.
Diet of Augsburg against the Protestants —
Confession of Augsburg—League of Smalcald formed by the Protestant princes.
1531	Ferdinand elected king of the Romans.
1532	Diet of Ratisbon—Armament against invasion by sultan Soliman, who is obliged to retreat—Convention of Nurenberg with the Protestants.
1534 Luther’s German Bible.
1536 League of Smalcald renewed for 10 years.
War with France: Charles invades Provence without success—unfortunate siege of Marseilles.
The Catholic and Protestant persuasions divide Germany almost equally.
1538 Congress of Nice between the Emperor,
Pope, and king of France : ten years’ truce.
Catholic league in Germany, opposed to that of Smalcald.
1541 Diet of Ratisbon—“ Recess” for a general council.
1543	War, in alliance with England, against France.—Conquest of the duchy of Cleves.
1544	Fruitless invasion of Champagne: separate peace at Crespy.
1545	Diet of Worms—religious disputes—Council of Trent meets.
1546	The Protestants put to the ban of the Empire—War of the Smalcaldists with the Emperor.
Death of Luther.
1547	Disunion of the Protestants—and submission of many members of the league—Battle of Mulhberg, defeat and forfeiture of the elector of Saxony and landgrave of Hesse—
Duke Maurice becomes elector of Saxony.
1548	Diet of Augsburg—Imperial decree of the " Interim” unpalatable to both parties.
1526 Louis defeated and killed by the Turks at Mohacz, Aug. 26 :
the last male of the Jagellons.
Fermnand"'!^ ThC ki^d°m ™tchcdly
devastated by civil wars
te and *the of
iLcfVhiraClkTg,boUn the Turks, who become masters of most of the fortified places, take Buda, and bum the library of Matthias Cor-vinus, 1526.
the hereditary claim.
Discontent from the attempts of the king to destroy civil and religious liberty, and establish hereditary succession.
The Diet of Pestta elect John Zapolski Vaivode of Transylvania to the throne : but a diet held at Presbnrg confirms Ferdinand of Austria:—Zapolski defeated at Tokay, offers to hold Hungary as the vassal of sultan Soliinan, 1528.
1535 Ferdinand cedes the kingdom to John for his life, with the succession for himself, but John breaks this treaty on the birth of a son in 1539.
1537 Croatia seized by the Turks after the victory of Essek over the Austrians.
1541 Death of John Zapolski : Martinuzzi, bishop of Waradin, guardian of his infant son 1543 Leaves Stephen, calls in the the crown, fail- Turks against Ferdi-ing issue male, nand—Soliman occupies
to the descendants of his second daughter, Anne duchess of Bavaria.
Hungary, and makes Buda the seat of a pasha, assigning Transylvania to John Sigis-mond Zapolski—war with Ferdinand renewed —truce for five years 1548.
1547 The Diet refuses to attack the	*
Elector of Saxony. The national independence —Bloody Diet held may be considered at an end : by Ferdinand after the princes of Transylvania vas-thc battle of Miihl- sals of ihe sultan : the re-berg — people die- mainder torn to pieces by armed and oppress- Turkish domination, and the ed, and the Rever- constant efforts of the house of sals forcibly re- Austria to establish its own pealed._____________powers________________________
Union of Calmar.
John,
king of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. 1500 The flower of the 1502 Sten Sture ex-Danish nobles fall in pels the Danes, and battle against Dit- re-establishes him-marsh.	self as administra-
1502 The king sup- tor—dies 1503.
ftssan
y	the kingdom, elected
administrator. 1504-12.
Fruitless attempts qf the Danish king to re-establish his power either by arms or policy.
Sten Sture, II., 1512-20,
son, administrator.
Christiern II.
1513-23,
(the Wicked) son : succeeds in Denmark and Norway.
1515 Marries Isabella, tensions between sister of Charles V.	Sten Sture and
Discontent from the	Troll, archbishop
attempts oj the king 0f Upsala, distract to make himself ab-	.
solute.	the country.
1517 Christiern invades Sweden, supported by the Archbishop. 1520 Sten Sture defeated and killed at Bogesund: Chris-tiem acknowledged by the diet of Upsala—massacres 94 ofthe Swedish nobles and bishops, and proscribes all of the 1523 The nobles of opposite party. Jutland provoked by the arbitrary infrac- The Swedes revolt tion of their privileges unanimously, under by the king, expel him, and call to the Oostavu Va throne his uncle, the 1523-60, duke of Sleswic-Hol- (Ericson) son of the stein.	duke of Gripsholm
Frederick I.	—kin? of Sweden.
1523-33,
(the Peaceful).
Obliged to sign a capituia- The Danes expelled.
lion, leaving the nobles power of life and death over their vassals.
Union of Calmar finally dissolved.
1524 Treaty of Malmo with Sweden: Denmark keeps Gothland.
The king deprives the bishops of their castles: they excite the
Progress of Lutheranism opposed by Norway : the diet of Odensee gives universal liberty of conscience, and allows priests to marry, 1527.
peasantry
1527 Diet of Wester-baas in favour of
Lutheranism-----1
four orders in t diet established nobles, clergy, town-deputies, and peasants.
1531 Olans Petri at Upsala finally establishes Lutheranism.
1531	Christiern II. attempts to reinstate himself in Norway by the help of the Catholics, is taken and imprisoned for life : dies 1559.
1532	Union of Norway 4 Denmark.
1533	Death of the king.
Interregnum.
Christiern III. son,
1534-59.
War continues, the clergy favouring the Catholics, the nobles the Protestants.
1536 Copenhagen taken, peace with Lubeck.
Popery and Episcopacy abolished, and church property confiscated : the king 1537 Truce for joins the League of Smalcald.	seventy years with
Norway made a province, and its diet	Russia,
abolished, as a punishment for its support of Christiern, 1536.
1542 Treaty of Fontainbleau, between Norway, Sweden, and France, against Charles V.
1544 Peace wltb the Umpire—the Flemings allowed free navigation of the Baltic, a fatal blow to the Hanseatic trade.
1544 Treaty of parti- The “Act of hereto between the royal Ullt^f	Jed.™
house of Denmark and the crown hereditary to the allied branch of T
T¥ . , ,	« ,.	confirmed by the diet of
Holstein-Gottorp. Weaterhaas 1544.
Frederick duke of Saxony refuses homage to Poland.
Victory of Plcs-kow by Livonian knights over Russians, 1502.
Truce for fifty years.
Albert of Brandenburg, grandmaster, 1511, (nephew of the king of Poland) swears allegiance to the Empire, and refuses homage to Poland.
1519 War with Poland on the question of homage ; unsuccessful siege of Dantzic by the Order:	truce
1521.
1521 Livonian branch of the order independent under Walter de Plettenberg, by paying a sum of money to the grand master.
1525 Prussia secularized, and erected into an hereditary duchy by Albert, but as a fief of Poland. Establishment of Lutheranism.
Bakes of Prussia.
Albert, 1525-68.
Little more than head, of the nobles, who retain the chief power.
1527 Marries the princess Dorothea of Denmark.
1532 Is put to the ban of the Empire in consequence of the reclamations of the Teutonic knights, but is defended by the king of Poland.
Encourages agriculture, and ameliorates the condition of the peasants.
1546 University of Konigsberg founded.
b
C
d
f
g
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY,
29
EXTENSIVE COLONISATION OF INDIA AND AMERICA BY EUROPEANS.
Alexander, br., 1501-6.
Final re-union of Lithuania to Poland.
War with Russians and Tartars, great victory over the latter, 1506.
Sigismond I.
1506-48, (the Great) br.
The emperor Maximilian excites Russia against Poland.
1512 War renewed— Russians take Smolensko, 1514 : but routed by the Poles on their retreat.
The influence of the king promotes civilisation and literature to a degree hitherto unknown in Poland.
1515 Treaty of Vienna, between the Emperor, Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia.
1519, 20 War with Prussia.
Poland.
Russia.
Ivan Vasilovich, 1505.
The power
splendour of R___
date from Ivan: bat he degraded the cultivators into serfs, and introduced the puuish-menl of the knout, etc.
Vasili or Basil IV., son by Sophia, 1505—33.
Unsuccessful expedition against the Tartars of Kasan.
1506 Glinski palatine of Lithuania flees into Russia—bloody but indecisive war—peace 1509.
Russia laid
Sigismond subsidizes the Tartars against Russia.
waste by the Tartars of Kasan and the Crimea, 1510.
becomes known to Europe through the search Of the Portuguese for the kingdom of Preslcr John.
1521 Irruption of the Crim Tartars, who besiege Moscow, but retire on promise of tribute: repulsed from Rezan.
1523 Peace between Poland and Russia.
Peace with Prussia, 1525.
1320 Union qf Masovia to Poland.
1531 Victory of the palatine Tamouski over the Walachians.
1534-7 Irregular hostilities against the Russians and Tartars.
Progress of the
Reformation.
The glory and power of Poland now at its greatest height.
Sigismond II.
1548-72, (Augustus) son. The last of the Jagellou.
Unsuccessful war against the Tartars of Kasan.
Selim I. (the Ferocious),
1512-20, dethrones and puts to death his father Rayezid, and destroys all his brothers.
1514 The Persians, under Shah Ismail, utterly routed at Kal-deroon, Aug. 17—Mesopotamia and Kurdistan added to the Ottoman empire.
1816 The mameluke sultan Kansd- Ghori defeated and hilled near Aleppo, Aug. 17.—Cairo taken by storm, and the mameluke dominions in Egypt, Syria, etc., annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1517.
The phantom of an Abbassidc Khalifat finally extinguished, after duration of nearly 800 years.
1518 Corsairs in Algiers.
Home and Hayraddin Barbarossa possess themselves of Algiers, etc. The latter, after the death of his brother, places his dominions under the protection of \the Porte, and commences the system of piracy for which the Barbary states were henceforth notorious.
150,000 Russians defeated on the Volga by the Tartars, 1524.
1530 An army under 30 Vaivodes repulsed from the siege of Kasan. Peace with the Tjartars.
Ivan IV. 1533-84,
(the Terrible) son, four years old.
Disorders during minority from the tyranny of the regent Chwofski.
, 1541 Sahhib Gherai, khan of Crim, signally defeated in invading Russia.
1545 Public coronation by tbe patriarch (the first in Russia)—Ivan assumes the title of Czgr—a ferocious prince, but active and warlike.
Publication of a code of laws called Youdebnih.
Formation of the corps called Strelitzes (archers), the first regular army.
1547 Ivan attempts to engage artificers and engineers to emigrate from Germany into Russia, but in vain.
1550 War renewed with the Tartars of Kasan.
Ottoman Empire. I Egypt & Africa.
Bayezid II. —1512. Great increase of the different orders of derwishes in Turkey.
1503 Peace with Venice.
1505 Rebellion of the Sheahs in Anatolia, under the derwish Shaitan-Kuli, who being driven into Persia, takes refuge with Shah Ismail, the founder of the Soofi dynasty :—war between Turkey and Persia.
Theunwarlike character of Bayezid renders him an object of contempt to the Janizaries.
Sultan of Egypt and Syria, Kansu-Ghori, 1501-16.
The dynasty of the Sherifs, now reigning in Morocco, founded about this time: their chronology and history arc little known.
1504 Allies himself with the king of Calicut against the Portuguese.
1511 Forms a league with the Prince of Armenia, the Shah of Persia, and the Knights of Rhodes, against the Ottoman Porte.
Mecca and Medina become subject to the Ottoman sultans, who henceforth style themselves Commanders of the faithful.
Soliman (the Magnificent), son,
1520-66.
Regulates the laws and finances of the empire by a fixed code —establishes the corps of Bos-tangis as a counterpoise to the Janizaries.
The. Turkish
1521	Belgrade takenTiy'storm.
1522	Rhodes capitulates. The grand-master de 1’Isle-Adam, and the remnant of the knights, take refuge in Italy ; and eight years afterwards establish themselves in Malta.
power attains 1526 Invasionoi Hungary: victory of Mohacz, and death of the Hungarian king, Louis n* lts-klghsuaf 1529 Invasion of Germany, and fruitless siege of Vienna.
,pltoh.
1532 Second invasion of Germany, without any result.
1534 Armenia, etc., overrun, but speedily recovered by the Persians, who gain a victory near Sultaniah.
Bagdad taken. The war with 1535 Tunis seized Persia languishes for some years.
The Ottoman navy becomes formidable under the command of Barbarossa—his lieutenants contest the sovereignty of the Mediterranean against Doria and the Knights of Malta.
Persia.
Soofi Dynasty, 1502.
Ismail Shah Soofi,
24th from the caliph Ali, expels the Turkmans of the White Sheep, and makes himself sole sovereign of Persia, 1502-2S.
1303 Tbe descendant* of Timnr expelled ftom Transoxiana by the Usbeks, who still retain it.
1504-8 Ismail reduces Kerman, Mesopotamia, Bagdad, etc.
1510 Defeats and kills Shahi-bek Khan Usbek, and reduces Khoras-san and Balkh. The Portuguese at Ormus. War with the Turks—battle of Kaldcroon, 1514—Tabrcez taken by the Turks.
Persia, under the Soofifamily, begins again to assume the form of a settled monarchy.
1519 Conquest of Georgia.
Tamasp I., son, 1523-76.
Continual war Khorassan with the Usbeks qf Trans-
1530 Victory over Obeid Khan Usbek at Herat.
1533-36 War with the Turks.
The Turks become virtually masters of Hungary.
1536	Alliance with France, the first with any Christian power.
Ite navy
1537	Conquest"of ^Troatia, etc. —Victory over the Austrians at Essek—War with Venice : fruitless siege of Corfu, and invasion of Naples.
1538	Conquest of Yemen and other provinces of Arabia.
1541 Buda made the seat of a pasha.
formidable
by Barbarossa, becomes dependent on the Porte— but the emp. Charles V. heads an expedition in person, and restores the Moorish king.
1538 A fleet sent by the pasha of Egypt against the Portuguese in India.
1541 Destruction of an armament led by the emp. Charles V. against Algiers.
1543 Barbarossa ravages the coasts of Italy :—dies 1546, succeeded by his lieutenant Dragut.
1535 Acquisition of Kandahar.
India.
Sekander Lodi, king of Delhi.—1517.
The Bahmani kingdom of the Dekkin divided into those of Bejapore, Ah-mednuggur, Golconda, Berar, and Ahmedabad, 1490, 1526.
Agra destroyed by an earthquake, 1505. k 1506 Hurwuntghur conquered from the Rajpoots.
Baber, a descendant of Timur, expelled from his kingdom of Ferghana by the Usbeks, possesses himself of Kabul, 1505-9.
Power of Guzerat under Mahmud Shah, 1459-1511.
Progress of the Portuguese on the Western coast: obstinate naval contests with the mos-lem princes, who are supported by the sultan of Egypt.
Ibrahim Lodi, son, 1517-26.
Power of Kristna Ray raja of
1519 Baber advances to the Indus.
Continual insurrections; discontent qf the Afghan nobles— confederacy qf the Rajpoot princes under Bona Sanha, raja qf Oodipoor.
1524 Baber takes Lahore, and is joined by Dowlut Khan Lodi.
1526	Ibrahim defeated and slain by Baber at Paniput—End of the Afghan power.
Tartar Dynasty, usually called
Tbe Great Morale*
Zehir-eddin Babfr, Emperor, 1526-30.
1527	Defeats a vast Rajpoot army under Rana Sanka at Byana.
1529 Invades Bengal, and reduces it to tribute.
Humayun, son, 1533-56.
1532	Reduces Mohammed Khan Lodi in Jonpoor.
1533	Conquers great part of Guzerat.
1334 Bahadr shah of Guzerat conquers Chittore—is killed In an affray with the Portuguese at Diu, 1337.
1535	Revolt of the Afghans in Bengal.
1536	Rebellion of the brothers of Humayun, who is driven from India by them and the Afghans, 1539.
Afghans restored at Delhi.
1542 Humayun driven from Cabul, takes refuge in Persia.
1543 Munificent reception of the Mogul emperor Humayun.
1547 The Turks, aided by a fugitive Persian prince, subdue Aderbijan, and take Ispahan, but do not long retain their conquests.
Seditions of the nobles.
America.
First discovered by the Spaniards under Columbus, 1492.
The Norwegians may have known the coasts of Greenland and Labrador in the ninth century, but the traditions are vague and unsupported: and the stories of Behaiin, Madoc, etc., appear to be altogether fabulous.
1493 Second voyage of Columbus: Spanish colony at Hispaniola.
1498	Third voyage of Columbus : discovery of Trinidad, and of New Spain on the S. continent.
1499	Voyage of Ojeda and Amerigo (whence America) Vespucci; S. American coast explored.
1500	Cabral, a Portuguese, discovers Brazil by accident on his voyage to India.
Columbus superseded and sent home in chains by Bouvadilla.
1502-4 Fourth voyage of Columbus— wrecked on Jamaicareturns to Europe, and dies at Valladolid, 1506.
1506	Sugar cane first planted in Hispaniola, introduced from the Canaries.
1507	Board of American trade instituted at Seville.
1509	Diego Columbus, son of Christopher, governor-general.
1510	First settlement on the mainland planted at Darien.
1511	Cuba conquered—Florida discovered 1512—Great S. Sea first reached by Balboa, 1513.
Las Casas advocates the cause of the oppressed natives.
1515 Panama founded—Rio de la Plata disc, by de Salis.
First patent granted for Importing Vegroes, 1517.
Mexico discovered by Grijalva, 1518.
1519 Invaded by Cortez, who advances to the capital. —1520 The emperor Montezuma seized and compelled to become a vassal of Spun—the natives revolt—death of Montezuma—retreat of the Spaniards— ferocity of the natives, who sacrifice their prisoners.—1520 Cortez again advances, takes the capital, and subdues the whole empire—.Execution of the last emperor Guatimozin.
1519 Magelhaens doubles the S. extremity of America—discovers the Ladrones and Philippines, where he is killed by the natives, but his ships, under Cano, perform
Tbe first complete Circumnavigation of the Globe, 1522.
1524-6 Peru discovered by Pizarro and Almagro—its fertility, riches, and civilisation—ancient race of princes called Incas.
1530 Establishment of the viceroyalty and court of audience of New Spain—Mendoza first viceroy.
1531 Peru invaded by Pizarro and Almagro—1532 First Spanish colouy at San Miguel—Pizarro avails himself oi the disseusions among the Incas, and treacherously seizes Atahualpa at Cax-amalca—he pays a ransom estimated at £500,000, but is put to death.— 1533 Capture of the capital cities of Cuzco and Quito—1535 Lima founded —Chili invaded by Almagro—revolt of the Peruvians, who besiege Cuzco— finally subdued 1586 — Conquest of New Granada—1537-8 Dissensions of the Spaniards: Almagro put to death by Pizarro.
1332 Foundation of Carthageni and Porto Bello.
1532 Mines of Zacotecas discovered—Conquest of Terra Firma.
1536	Cortez discovers California—returns to Spain 1540, and dies in neglect 1547.
1537	Papal bull declaring the natlvee of America to be rational beings I
Archbishoprics founded at Mexico and Lima, and afterwards at Caraccas, Bogota, and Guatimala.
1540	Orellana sails down the Amazon river to the sea.
1541	Pizarro assassinated by the son of Almagro—civil war—Yaca de Castro governor, defeats and executes Alma-gro, 1542—1543 Viceroyalty and court of audience established—regulation of encomiendas—Discontent and civil wars, till Gonzalo Pizarro is defeated and executed by Gasca (1548), who restores order.
Mines qf Potosi discovered, 1543.
1550 Conception, capital of Chili, founded. Universities of Mexico and Lima, 1551.
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
1550
30
Table xiii.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Sixteenth
GROWING PROSPERITY OF ENGLAND UNDER ELIZABETH. RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE.
1551
1560
1570
1580
1590
1600
The English Constitution.
With the accession of the Tudors began a struggle in England between despotism and liberty. The monarchy, backed by the clergy, laid claim to absolute power; the people would not tamely submit to it: the end of the strife was the establishment of free constitutional government.
Under Henry VII. the English monarchy first became consolidated. The power of the nobles had been so reduced by the civil wars, that they could no longer make head against the king—it was still further lessened by their being able to dispose of their estates, and by confiscations and fines under the Tudors. The commons, or middle class, in the meantime had arisen, and continued to rise, rapidly in wealth and intelligence, and by degrees acquired power to check the exorbitant pretensions of the crown.
In theory the English monarchy might still be considered as limited, but in practice it certainly approached very nearly to despotism.
Check* upon the royal authority at thi* period.—1. No taxes could be legally levied without cousent of parliament ; 2. No new law had any force till it had received the sanction of parliament; 3. No subject could '
prosecution for any illegal act they might do in the name of the king. But although these may be regarded as established principles of the English government at this period, the Tudors found too many means of evading them : the greedy exactions, benevolences, and forced loans of Henry VII. and his successors, were direct infringements of the first; the arbitrary power of the Star Chamber, which threatened and punished all persons who in parliament, courts of Justice, and elsewhere, opposed the wishes of the crown, led to infractions of nearly all the remainder.
During the.reign of Henry VIII. the power of the crown attained its highest pitch; the liberty, the property, and the life of every individual seem to have been directly or indirectly at the will of the monarch. Had it not suited the plans of Henry to have used the parliament as a machine for turning the property of the church into his exchequer, it is doubtful whether the commons would not have lost all force as the guardian of the rights of the people, and have sunk into a mere courtly office for drawing up and registering the wishes of the monarch.
The Reformation, and the religious disputes to which it gave rise, had a general tendency to make men reflect upon civil authority, and to whom of right it belonged. This was favourable to the growth of liberty; while the use made of parliament by the crown, in settling religious forms, greatly increased its importance : by this parliament was brought to take an active share in thegovernment.andin the general affairs of the state; it thus grew into a part of the state itself, and laid the true foundation of representative government.
But, though friendly to liberty, the Reformation long halted before it reached the great object to which it seemed directed— the emancipation of the human mind; during the reigns of the Tudors, acts of supremacy and uniformity were made the means of perpetual religious persecution.
The belief of the community, the consciences of individuals, were regulated by the despotic will of the sovereign— the puritan no less than the papiet was burnt, even by Elizabeth.
Her government is full of examples of arbitrary power: parliament, courts of justice, the life and property of individuals were nearly all under her control— “ England was managed by Burleigh, as if it had been the home and estate of a nobleman under a strict and prying steward.”
Yet several conflicts took place between Elizabeth and parliament, in which the latter was frequently the gainer.
Mary and Elizabeth endeavoured to increase the power of the crown in the House of Commons by the creation or revival of many new boroughs: hence it was filled with placemen, lawyers, seekers of preferment, or the mere tools of the court.
1507 Damley murdered — the queen marries Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, but Is dethroned and Imprisoned in Lochleven by the nobles.
English influence predominates.
Britain.
Mart, —1567.
1554 Arran resigns the regency—Mary of Guise, the queen-mother, regent.-French ascendancy unpopular.
the proteetant lord* of the “ Congregation" under the prior of St. Andrew*, and the regent and her French aux-iliarie*—English aid the pro-testants in the siege of Leith.
England.
Boose of Todor.
Edward VI., —1553,
1551 Northumberland at the head of affairs Somerset tried and unjustly beheaded, 1552.
Northumberland intrigues to set aside the princesses and settle the crown on his own daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, great grand-
Coramcrcial treaty for the importation of bullion from Sweden.
France.
Henry II., —1559.
1350 University of Rheims.
1551	Treaty of Friedewalde with Maurice of Saxony.
1552	Fifth war with Charles V.—Lorraine invaded; Metz, Toul, and Verdun taken.
Increase and persecution of the
Mary, half-sister, 1553-8.
1553 First intercourse
daughter of Henry VII.—he is attainted and wilh Russia, executed, 1553-Lady Jane and catholiolom restored-her husband executed, 1554.	but the alienation of church
land* confirmed.
1554 The queen marries Philip of Spain: but the parliament refuses her power to change the succession. Sir Thomas IVyat's rebellion.
1555 War with England languidly carried on.
1557-80 Religion* wan between 1555-8 Bloody persecution of the Protestant*-Cran- 1557 War with France to support Spain—Calais taken from England
..	----" ,-_j	.1- mer, with four other bishops, and many persons of by the duke of Guise.
all ranks, burnt for heresy.	| 1557 The French def'eftte(] at St. Quentin.
An unpopular and unfortunate reign. 1558 Victory of English and Spaniards over French at Gravelines.
Twenty-two new borough* created. |
Elizabeth, half-sister, 1553-1603.
1558 The queen marries the	Bacon, chancellor; Cecil, lord Burleigh, secretary of state.
Dauphin: they assume the English royal
title in opposition to Elizabeth.	ProteotantUm finally eatabllabed.
England the bulwark of Protestantism in Europe.
1554 Terouenne and Hesdin taken by Charles V.
Parliament of Bretagne established. 1555 Antoine, duke of Bourbon, becomes king of Navarre by marriage wilh the heiress lane, daughter of Henri d*Albert.
Protestants throughout this reign.
1556 Truce of Vaucelles.
1559 Peace of Chateau-Cambresis: Calais given up to France.
1559 The king accidentally killed at a tournament.
1560	Death of Mary of Guise—Catholicism abolished by parliament.
1561	Mary arrives In Scotland-unpopular from her adherence to Catholicism.
1562	Revolt of the earl of Huntley: battle of Cor-richie.
The Puritan si
t begins to show Itself.
135S Laws of uniformity and supremacy.
The foreign policy of England assumes an importance before unknown.
1562 The XXXIX Articles ratified—Establishment of Poor-Laws.
Francis II., son, 1559-60,
(husband of queen Mary Stuart).
The government in the hands of the queen-mother and the Guises.
Public debt 42 millions. 1550 The magistrate Anne riu Bonrg, the firtt proteetant martyr. 1560 The Jesuits in France.—Calvinist conspiracy of Amboise against the Guises. The prince of Conde heads the Protestants.
The Chancellor L’Hfipital.
Charles IX., brother, 1560-74.
1560 States-general of Orleans, the first held for 80 years.
The qnecn-mother favours the /fuyueno/*(Protestants), to counterbalance the power of the Guites.
1562 The Huguenots protected—an English garrison in Havre de Grace: lost, 1563. 1565 Revolt of the Protestants—fomented and then disowned by Elizabeth.
1566 Murder of Rizzio.
Literature,
science,
trude,
manufactures,
and
navigation
flourish.
Sixty-two members added to the Hduse of Commons during this reign, mostly under the influence of the crown or peerage.
The Puritans begin to obtain an influence In parliament.
1360 English merchants reach Persia by way of Russia and the Cas-
James VI., son,
1567-1625,one year old.
Moray regent.
1568 Mary of Scotland takes refuge in England; is imprisoned: conspiracy of the duke of Norfolk for her release—rebellion of the earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, 1569.
1570 Moray shot by Hamilton of Bolhwellhaugh.
Civil wars—Morton regent, 1572-8.
Confiscation of ohnrob property— Tulchan bishops.
1578 James assumes the government.
1570-9 Civil wars of the Desmonds in Ireland.
The queen formally excommunicated 1571.	1571 The Commons at-
tempt to claim liberty of
1571 Second conspiracy of Norfolk in favour are^remJtoriiy'rMtraiu8 of Mary: he is beheaded with the earl of ed by the queen—A mem-Northumberland, 1572.
bribe of £4.
1571 Money and troops sent to the aid of the Huguenots.
1562 Religious liberty granted to the Protestants — Slaughter of Huguenot* at Vassi by the duke of Guise : hence religions oivil wars—Orleans Huguenot head-qaarters.
1362 Firtt tear—The Huguenot* tupported by England— defeated at Dreux, 1563—Duke of Guise murdered by Poltrol:—Pacification of Ainboise, and toleration, 1563.
1564 The Tuilleries founded.
1565 Conferences of Bayonne between the queen-mother and Alva—hence originates
1567 Thetecond war—Huguenots defeated at St. Denys, aided by the Elector Palatine.
156B Peace of Longjumcau,“/apeftfepatx”—war resumed in six months.
1569 Huguenots routed at Jarnac (Conde killed), and at Moncontour.
Henry, king if Navarre, head* the Huguenot party.
Ineffectual proposals for a marriage between the queen and the duke of Anjou—repeated, 1581, but opposed by the nation.
The internal administration vigorous, and the country tranquil and prosperous: force of the militia 183,000.
Crown nearly despotic.
1581	Morton impeached and beheaded.
1581 Death of the admirable Crichton.
1582	Association of nobles called Raid of Rulhven against the influence of Stewart, earl of Arran— overthrown, 1583—earl of Gowrie beheaded, 1584.
1583	Walsingham’s embassy to Scotland.
1584	Intrigues of the Master of Gray in England,
1584	Catholic conspiracies—Severe penal laws—Increase of Puritans.
Unsuccessful attempts to colonise Virginia by Gilbert, 1578, and by Raleigh, 1584.
1585	War with Spain—The queen’s favourite, Leicester, commands in the Netherlands.
1585 League with England; the king receives a pension of £5000 a year.
1586 Drake in the West Indies—Tobacco first brought to Europe.
1587 First regular attendance in parliament of two county members.
Privateer expeditions to South America common.
Sir Francis Drake's voyage round the world, 1577-80.
1580 Intrigues of Spain with the English Catholics—Spanish troops sent to Ireland—English colleges for Catholics founded at Rheims, Doucy, and Rome, 1581.	1M0 Coache, first osed.
1583 Levant Company chartered.
Arrogance of the Presbyterian clergy.
1590 The king marries Anne of Denmark.
1504 Treasonable practices and banishment of Stewart, earl of Bothwell—Battle of Glenllvat, the earl of Argyle defeated by the catholic lords.
1595 The clergy excite seditions In Edinburgh on the catholic lords being pardoned — repressed and punished.
Unsuccesful attempts to colonise the Hebrides.
1600 Mysterious attempts on the king’s life by the earl of Gowrie.
1586 Babington’s conspiracy—suppressed—Queen of Scots tried and condemned for pretended participation—beheaded, Feb. 7, 1587.
1587 Drake bums a Spanish squadron in Cadiz harbour.
1888 The Spanish armada defeated and destroyed by the
English nuder Lord Howard, Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, etc.—It consisted of 130 ships of war and 20,000 troops.
Commencement of Maritime supremaoy of England.
Firtt newspaper in England.
1589 Alliance with Henry IV. in aid of Protestantism—troops sent to France under Lord Willoughby.
1591 Naval actions against Spain.
English first in India (first patent to East India company, 1000).
1593 Act for religions conformity, aimed against the Puritans.
1596, 7 Naval expeditions of Drake, Raleigh, Hawkins, etc. in South America—Cadiz taken, and the Spanish fleet burnt, by the queen’s favourite, the earl of Essex, 1596.
Trade oppressed by numberless monopolies—
The Commons petition against them, but with little success, 1597.
Privileges of the Hanse towns abolished.	1598 Death of Burleigh.
1599 Troubles in Ireland—Revolt of O’Neill, earl of Tyrone—Essex lord lieutenant, unsuccessful, recalled : succeeded by Lord Mountjoy—Spanish invasion in Kerry, defeated, 1601—rebellion suppressed.
1601 Revolt and execution of Essex.
1603 James becomes king of England—union of the two crowne.
1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew,
70,000 Huguenots perish throughout France.—War recommenced—Peace of Rochelle, 1573, favourable to the Huguenots.
1573 Henry, duke of Anjou, elected king of Poland.
1574 The factions of the Mecontene and the Politique* join the Huguenots.
Henry III., brother, 1574-89, king of Poland.
1574 Fifth war with the Huguenot confederate*—Peace and toleration, 1576, edict of pacification.
1576	The Catholic League formed by Henry of Guise against the Huguenot*; the kiug compelled to sign it at the States-general of Blois.
1577	Sixth religion* war—six months—pacification of Bergerac.
1578 Bridge of Pont-Nenf commenced. 1570 Order of St. Esprit
France in a state of anarchy and confusion : the profligacy of the king destroys his authority, which is despised by all parties.
1584	Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot, becomes heir to the crown by the death of the duke if Anjou: hence the teventh religious war.
1585	Edict of Nemours—the king compelled to revoke the privileges.
r of the League with War of the three Henries.’
1587	Cabal of the “ Sixteen” in Paris—the leaguers defeated at Coutras by the king of Navarre.
1588	Revolt of Paris—uJournte des Barricades —the king flees to Rouen—Guise murdered at Blois by the king’s orders.
1589	The duke of Mayenne, brother of Guise, heads the League.
The king murdered by a monk—end of the House of Valois.
House of Bourbon.
Henry IV., 1589-1610, king of Navarre; heir male of Louis IX.
His accession opposed by the League and Spain—Victory of Arques, 1589, and of Ivry, 1590, over the Leaguers.
1590	Siege of Paris—raised by the Spaniards under the prince of Parma.
1593 Henry abjures Protestantism—enters Paris, 1594.
1594 Chatel attempts to assassinate the king at the instigation of the Jesuits, who are banished from France.
1595 War with Spain continued—the Leaguers submit by degrees.
1595 Henry formally reconciled with the Pope.
1598	Peace of Vervins—mutual restitution of conquests with Spain.
Ministry of Sully—re-establishment of finances, and restoration of order.
1598 Edict of Xante*, establishing toleration—till 1685— Fortified towns granted as places of security to the Protestants.
1599	Manufactures of silk, glass, etc. established—Tobacco intro-duced by Jean Ericot, 1600.
b
d
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
31
33
DECLINE OF PORTUGAL AND SPAIN. RELIGIOUS DISPUTES.
John III.,—1557.
1550 The king grand master of all orders.
The Portuguese possessions in North Africa now mostly lost.
1554 Concan in India lost.
Sebastian, 1557-78, grandson, three years old,
Educated by the Jesuits, who now engross all oflices. The king, in their hands, endeavours to turn everything to the account of the Church.
The
kingdom
1562 Cardinal Henry regent.
begins to
decline.
The Indian territories divided into three distinct governments, Ceylon, Malacca, and Goa. — Portuguese power in India on the wane.
Portugal.
1571	Noronha viceroy of Goa: general peace.
1572	Lusiad of Camoens published.
1574 Expedition to Africa.
1578 Loando, Congo, and Angola settled, to supply negroes for Brazil.
1578 Second African expedition — Battle of Alcazar-quivir, Aug. 4 : the king and a great part of the nobility perish: Ruin of Portuguese power.
Henry, 1578-80, great uncle, a cardinal and childless. Antonio, prior of Crato, natural son of a son of Emmanuel, claims the throne on Henry’s death, 1580, but
Spain.
Italy.
The Emperor Charles V., —1556.
1552 Fifth war with France.
1554	Law of the indivisibility of the Spanish monarchy.
Philip marries Mary of England.
1555	Death of queen Joanna.
Commencement of the Spanish national debt.
1550 Truce of Vaucelles for five years with France.
Charles abdicates:—dies, 1558.
PitiLir II., son, 1556-98. 1557 Victory of St. Quentin, and of Gravelines, 1558, over France.
1559	Peace of Chateau-Cum-hresis.—'The capital moved to Madrid from Toledo.
1560	Marries Isabella of France. Persecution of heretics—
many clergy suspected— Autos de l'e.
The king a sullen despot— arbitrary taxation.
1563	Escurial founded: cost 8,000,000
1564	Acquisition of the Philippines.
Beginning of the troubles in the Netherlands.
1507 Caraccas in America founded.
1568	Mysterious death of Don Carlos, prince of the Asturias.
1569	Rebellion of the oppressed Moriscos in Granada under Aben Ilumaya ; suppressed,
1571, by Don John of Austria, the king’s natural brother.
1570	War with the Turks; naval victory over them at Le-panto, 1571.
1572 Manilla built, and made the seat of a viceroy.
1572 General insurrection of the Netherlands—Alva recalled, 1573.
Cervantes flourishes.
Unfortunate interference in the
1578 Death of Don John.
civil wars
France.
Hostilities with England.
1553 Corsica revolts against Genoa under San Pietro, count of Omano, aided by the French and Turkish fleets.
1552 Siena revolts from Florence with French aid — retaken, 1555, after the defeat of the Strozzi party at Marciano, 1554, by the Imperialists.
Venice obliged by the decline of her power to observe a prudent neutrality.
1556 The Pope 1557 Siena restored to allies with	Florence by Philip
France against	II., in acquittal of the
Spain.	sums borrowed by-
Charles V.—Ottavio Farncse,son of Pietro, restored in Parma & Placentia, w hich are held by his line as fiefs of the Pope till 1731.
1559 Peace of Chateau-Cambresis terminates the French wars in Italy.
Tranquillity for 66 years under Spanish ascendancy.
Savoy restored by Despotism of Cosmo de Medici: he patron-
l ranee to the jK.s arts an(j 5Cifncc, duke Emmanuel — becomes the most
drew Doria.
1564 Second rebellion of San-Pietro in Corsica —quelled,1569.
1566 Chios taken by the Turks.
Florence a grand dueby.
1569 Cosmo declared grand duke ofTuscanyby Pius IV., in opposition to the Emperor—
hereditary in the Medici family till 1737.
1570 War of Venice with the Porte— Cyprus reduced by the Turks, 1571
1572	Naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks—not followed up—
Antonio Colonua, general of the papal galleys, entered Rome in the style of an ancient triumph !
1573	Venice makes peace with the
Porte, gives up Cyprus, and pays 300,000 ducats for the restoration of the Dalmatian frontier. Hence dates the entire decay qf her
Francis-Maiua, son, 1574-87, succeeds Cosmo.
conflrmed, 1576,in the title of grand duke by bis brother-in-law, the Emperor Maximilian II., i condition of ackno lodging his tenure be of the Emperor, not of the Pope.
1576 Acquisition of Oneglia and Tenda to Savoy.
The Emperor Charles V. —1554,
cedes the crown to his son, on his marriage with the queen of England.
Philip II., 1554 98, son,
governs by viceroys, never appearing in Italy throughout his reign.
The coasts devastated almost annually by the Turkish fleets.
1559 The armament against Tripoli, under the dukedeMedina-Celi, viceroy of Sicily, destroyed by the Turks at Galves.
The Inquisition prohibited by a royal edict, 1565.
1565 The Turks repulsed from Malta, after a five months’siege, by the grand master, De la Valette.
1576 Dissensions at Genoa between the old and new noblesse—the latter at length admitted to a community of privileges.
1580 Portugal is overrun by the duke of Alva, and falls under Spanish dominion till 1640.
Philip of Spain, 1580-98.
1581	Cortes of Tomar; independence of Portugal guaranteed.—Successes of Mascaren-ha in India.
1582	Tyranny of Philip.
n the Tagus : all offices given u foreigners. Philip returns ti Spain, 1583.
Discontent of the people : four successive false Sebastians.
The revolt of the Netherlands gives the first great blow to Spanish power—and
The defeat of the Spanish armada, 1588,
1589 An English expedition of for the conquest of England, volunteers under Drake and Norris repulsed from Lisbon.	under the
duke of Medina Sidonia,
ruins the navy.
1592 Defeat of a great Moslem armament at Choul.
1592 Revolt of Saragossa in defence of the Aragonese liberties 1594 Portuguese attacked by (violated as to the secretary the Dutch m the Indian seas; Perez)—repressed, and their
their first European rivals.
rights much curtailed.
1595	IF</r with France, to sist the League against Henry
1596	Cadiz taken by the English —loss to Spain, 20,000,000 ducats.
1598 Peace of Vervins with France; conquests mutually restored.
Philip III., son, 1598-1621. Ministry of Sandoval, duke of Lerma.
Charles Emmaxuf.i. I.,(<Ae Great,) 1580-1630, succeeds his father as duke of Savoy.
1584 Public bank of
Vigorous government of Pope
Sextus V. 1585-90 Ferdinand I.,
( Cardinal,)
—public buildings 1587-1609.
at Iiome—restora- 1588 The duke of Savoy possesses
lion of the Vatican himself of Saluces and Chateau-Dau-library, etc. phin during the civil wars in France.
1590 Invades Provence, and attempts to recover Geneva, but w ithout success.
1592 The Rialto and the Piazza di San Marco built at Venice.
Naples and Sicily.
Church History and Popes.
Julius III., 1550-5.
Gives the cardinal’s hat, vacant by his election, to the keeper of his apes.
1551	The council of Trent reassembles, but Henry II. of France protests against its authority—prorogued for two years, 1552, from fear of Maurice of Saxony: continues prorogued 10 years.
1552	1'he treaty of Pussau secures toleration to the Protestants in Germany.
1553	Servetus burnt at Geneva for heresy at the instigation of Calvin.—Socinus propagates the Socinian heresy in Poland.
Marcellus II., 1555, for 20 days.
Paul IV. (Caraffu), 1555-9.
1555 Toleration in Germany ratified by the diet of Augsburg.
Paul attempts to re-assert the ancient papal authority, and refuses to acknowledge F'erdinand as emperor, from CharlesV’. having resigned without his permission.
Pius IV. (Medici), 1559-66.
1500 Death of Mclanchthon.
A reign disquieted by conspiracies, for one of which cardinal Caraffu, nephew of Paul 1V., was executed.
1560 Protestantism established by law in Scotland—John Knox at the head of the Scotch church,
1562 Commencement of the religious wars in France—the name of Huguenots first given to the Protestants in 1560.
1562 Connell of Trent re-assembled, dissolved, 1563: its decrees were received io Germany, Poland, and Italy, but not in Hungary or France, and only partially in Spain and Portugal. Instead of re-uniting the Christian world, its decrees have ever proved an insuperable liue of demarcation between Catholics and Protestants.
PlUS V., 1566-72.
Reformation of the Netherlands begins by the Calvinists.
The reformed or Calvinistic doctrines, originating at Geneva, formally adopted in the Palatinate, 1583, in Anhalt, 1595, and in other German states: but not formally established in Holland till the synod of Dort, 1618.
1567	Bull against Baius of Louvain occasions violent disputes.
1568	Renewal of the bull (lIn Coma Domini."
: Puritans, and Brownisls or Independents hren, the remains of the Hussites—Baptist r Anti-trinitarians—especially the Socinians in Hungary,
1571 Battle of Lepanto.
1571 The Pope attempts to claim temporal jurisdiction in Sicily unsuccessfully.
1598 The pope, Clement VIII., possesses himself of the duchy of Ferrara on the extinction of the male line of the House of Este.
Philip III., son, 1598-1621
1570	Queen Elizabeth of England again excommunicated.
1571	Augustus of Saxony assembles a convocation at Dresden.
1572	Foundation of the Society of “ Brethren of Charity."
Pius V. was canonized 1712. He said, “ when a monk he had good hopes of salvation: as a cardinal, he was doubtful: as pope he despaired.”
Gregory XIII., (Buoncompagno,) 1572-85.
1572 Massacre of Bt. Bartholomew. Public thanksgivings ordered at Rome by the Pope (the father of the Christian world!) for the slaughter of the Huguenots. Yet Gregory’s character, apart from bigotry, was mild even to weakness.
1574	Congregation of Saxon divines at Torgau—the Crypto-Calvinists condemned, and their leading members imprisoned.
1575	Congregation of “ the Oratory” founded by St. Philip Neri.
1576 The " Book of Torgau,” or “ Formula of Concord,” drawn up by Andiwas by order of Augustus of Saxony, in order to reunite the Lutherans, and mark their differences with the Calvinists, whose opinion on the eucharist was condemned—its total failure occasioned Hospiuian to term it " Concordia Diseors ”—It was solemnly rejected in 1577 by assembly of the Calvinist divines of the Palatinate at Frankfort.
Continual disputes in Germany between the Lutherans and Calvinists—and tumults between Catholics and Protestants— the seeds of the Thirty Years’ War.
1580 Fruitless attempts to unite the Russian church to that of Rome, by the jesuit Possevin.
1582 Gregorian era. Reformation of the Calendar-
udopted henceforth by all catholic countries.
1585 The Pope receives an embassy from Japan.
Sixtus V. (Peretti), 1585-90.
Active and energetic: re-establishes the police regulations, which Gregory had neglected.
1586 Corrects abuses in the church, and limits the number of the college of cardinals to 70—repairs the Roman aqueducts, re-erects the obelisks, etc.
1589	Repairs the Vatican library, which had been in ruins since the sack of Rome, 1527.
1590	Death of Sixtus—the destruction of bis statues by the mob, to whom his rigid exercise of justice made him obnoxious, occasioned a regulation that no statues should be raised to any I'utuic pope in his lifetime.
Urban VII. (Castagna), 1590, 13 days.
Gregory XIV. (S/bndrata), 1590-91.
Innocent IX. (Facchinctli) 1591, two months.
Clement VIII. (Aldobrandini), 1591-1605.
1595 Henry IV. of France conforms, and is received into the catholic church—tolerates protestantism by the edict of Nantz —repealed by Louis XIV., 1685.
1595 Tasso dies at Rome on the eve of being crowned in the capitol.
1598 Commencement of the congregations “ de Auxiliis” at Rome, for deciding the disputes of the Jesuits and Dominicans.
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1600
b
d
30
32
Continuation of Table xiii.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Sixteenth
INSURRECTION OF THE NETHERLANDS. RELIGIOUS DISPUTES.
1551
1560
1570
The Emperor Charles V., —1555.
Charles resigns in favour of his son.
Philip II., 1555-98, king of Spain.
1557 Victory of St. Quentin over France.
1559 Philip returns to Spain— the duchess of Parma regent, cardinal Granvelle minister, till 1563.
1560 The association of Gueus or beggars (400 nobles) present the " Compromise ” at Breda to the regent.
Religion* tumults t the Catholic churches defaced by the Calvinists and the images destroyed.
1580
1590
1600
Netherlands.
Switzer-
land.
Reign of Terror.
1569 The exaction of the tenth penny produces a general revolt —8000 artisans emigrate to England.
The Water Gueus attack the Spanish commerce—take Brill, 1572.
Defeat and death of Louis of Nassau by Requesens, 1574.
William, prince of Orange, 1576-8,
leader of the malecontents.
1573 Alva recalled—Requesens governor.
Fruitless attempts at conciliation.
The Spanish troops mutiny for pay, and plunder Antwerp.
Don John of Austria, 1576-8. Pacification of Ghent, ineffectual, except as a bond of union among the insurgents, 1578—the insurgents headed by the archduke Mathias.
1578-92 The prince of Parma governor for Spain.
England assists the insurgents, 1578.
1579 Union of Utrecht among the seven northern provinces— the Belgian piovinces remain subject to Spain.
1581 The United Provinces formally declare their independence, choose thedukeof Anjou sovereign —but he retires, 1583.
1584	William of Orange assassinated at Delft: succeeded as stadtholder by his son
Maurice of Orange, 1585-1625.
1585	Antwerp taken by the prince of Parma.
1585	Brill, Flushing, and Ram-mekins given into die custody of the English : the earl of Leicester commandant for the Dutch, 1585-7, unsuccessful.
1586	Barneveld, Grand-Pensionary, defines the powers of the states^general, and the constitution of the republic.
1586 Battle of Zutphen—death of Sir Philip Sidney.
1590 Maurice takes Breda, and expels the Spaniards from the seven provinces.
1595 The Dutch attackthe Spanish and Portuguese trade in India, and establish themselves in Java.
1598 Philip gives up the sovereignty of the Netherlands to his daughter and her husband, the archduke Albert of Austria.
Subsides
into
peaceful
obscurity.
the states
AGAIN
FLOURISH.
Alliance of catholics and protestants, etc.
FEW FOREIGN WARS.
THE
INDUSTRY OF
1566 The protestant cantons make reclamation against the persecution of the Huguenots.
THE NATIONAL FORCES ARE EXERTED ON PEACEFUL ARTS, MANUFACTURES,
1574 The Jesuits received in the catholic cantons of Lucem and Friburg.
AGRICULTURE,
SIMPLE AND MORAL CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE.
1580 A papal nuncio established at Lucem.
1586 The Borromean, or Golden League, adopted by the seven catholic cantons :
It agreed, that in case of any individual mem-
Roraan faith, the others should compel them to abide by It
1589 Alliance of Switzerland with Henry IV. of France against Savoy.
Germanic Empire. Bohemia.
Charles V. —1558.
Ferdinand. —1564.
1551 Dispossesses the
1551 Secret treaty between Maurice of Saxony and France, in behalf of the Protestants.
Maurice suddenly attacks the emperor, who flies to Villach:—
Treaty of Passau, securing religious liberty to the Protestants.
Fruitless siege of Metz by the emperor.
1353 Maurice killed in the battle of Siever-hauaen against Albert of Brandenburg.
1355 Diet of Augsburg—Ratification qf religious freedom to the Protestants, coupled with the " Retervatum Ec-cletiasttcvm,” preserving to the Catholic church the benefices of such ecclesiastics as should afterwards become Protestants.
1330 Introduction of the Jesuits.
1556 Charles abdicates, but the administration carried on in his name till his death in 1568.
Ferdinand I., brother, 1558-64.—King of Hungary and Bohemia, now definitively joined to the Empire. Coronation by the Pope finally tsoi introduction of the relinquished.
The spread and great influence of the Jesuits.
The remainder of this century presents feu events of moment.
1558-67 Unsuccessful attempts of the son of the deposed elector of Saxony to recover the electorate —conspiracy of Grumbach.
1303 Council of Trent finally dissolved.
Maximilian II., son, 1564-76, son-in-law of Charles V.— crowned king of Bohemia, 1562, and of Hungary, 1563, in his father’s life.
young John Sigismond of Transylvania—procures the murder of Martinuzzi.
1552 The Turks expel the Austrians, and reinstate John Sigismond in Transylvania, 1553.
Hungary falls almost entirely under the Turkish domination.
Jesuits.
1562 Eight years’ truce with the forte : Ferdinand cedes Transylvania to John Sigismond, with a pension of 30,000 guilders (100,000 ducats).
Gustavus Vasa.—1560.
1550 Commercial treaty with England and the Netherlands.
Commerce and navigation encouraged: and foreign artizans and manufacturers attracted to settle in the country. —A full and general treasury.
1555-7 Short war with Russia.
Prospe rity.
Eric XIV., son, 1560-68.
1561	Esthonia and Revel put themselves under the protection of Sweden: hence
1562	War with Russia and Poland.
1563 War with Sweden on the subject of national supremacy, and the national quarterings.
1566 Invasion by Soli-man, who dies before Zigetli.
1568 Eightyears’truce with the Turks.
1571 Death of John Sigismond of Transylvania — succeeded by Stephen Batthori.
Introduces a more moderate system of government, and a pacific foreign policy.
The Austrian dominions dl- 1507 Procla-vided by the separation of mation of re-Stiria, Corinthia, etc., as ligious liberty an appanage for the arch- at the Diet of duke Charles—till 1019. Prague.
1571 Universal religious toleration established in Austria.
Dissensions of the Catholic and Protestant princes—and of the Calvinists against the Lutherans--Ths “ Form of Concord” drawn up,
1570, by order qf Augustus the Pious, elector of Saxony, in order to reunite religious differences, but with little success.
Rodolfh II., son, 1576-1612—crowned king of Bohemia, 1575, and of Hungary, 1572.
Files his residence at Prague. Leaves the great offices of the state vacaut, and places Ger-Golden age Of man troops in the fortresses and garrisons.
1575 Stephen Batthori elected king of Poland ; succeeded in Transylvania by his brother Christopher, 1571-81.
literature i
Hagek, Dubravius, (Daubrawricsky) Wartowshy, Blahoslav.
The Emperor, given up to astronomy and chemistry, abandons all state affairs to Spaniards and Jesuits —the influence of Austria in Germany declines almost to nothing.
Publication of the Rodolphine tables of astronomy by Tycho-Brahe and
1587 Endeavours in vain to procure the election of his brother Maximilian to the Polish throne.
The imperial authority disregarded by the princes of the Empire, who wage war among themselves: the increasing discord between the Catholics and Protestants paves the way for the Thirty Yeard War in the nest Century.
1593	War with the Porte in Hungary.
1594	Union of Protestants at Heil-bronn.
Sigismond Batthori in Transylvania, 1581-1602—son of Christopher.
1592 Defeat of the Turks at Sissek—war declared, 1593—Raab taken by the Turks, 1594.
1595 Successes against the Turks; victory of Gran gained by count Mausfeldt.
1597 Invasion by the sultan in person ; battle of Agria gained by the Turks.
Sigismond cedes Transylvania to the emperor 4n exchange for territories in Silesia: but changing his purpose goes over to the Turks.
Denmark & Norway.
Christian III. —1559.
A peaceful reign: commerce and agriculture encouraged; the administration of justice reformed.
Decrease of the influence of the Hanse towns.
Frederic II., son, 1559—88.
The king restrained by the capitulation, on accession, from conferring nobility without conscut of the couu-
1560 Subjugation of Ditmarsh.
Sweden.
Prussia.
Administration of Peter Oxe, the Danish Sully: introduction of a regular system of finance.
The Swedet generally victorioue by tea.
1567 The king massacres the whole of the Sture family through jealousy —becomes insane and is dethroned, 1568—dies by poison, 1577.^
John III., brother, 1568-92.
X570 Peace of Btettlu i mutual concessions : Denmark yields the supremacy over Sweden: Sweden cedes Norway and its own southern provinces.
Bellffloue disputes.
The king, at the instigation of his wife, Catharine of Poland, attempts to restore Catholicism, and frames a mixed Litnrgy, which is rejected by both parties, and by the Pope, but the Diet ratifies it, 1382. Charles, the king's brother, heads the Protestants, and by the convention of 1583, both sects are alike tolerated : —death of queen Catharine, 1583.
After the termination
of the wars
following the
Tycho Brahe. 1377 Castle of Kronenbnrg on the Sound built, and tolls levied on all vessels; giving Denmark the sovereignty of the Baltic.
dissolution of
the union of Calmur,
Denmark enjoys a
1583 The English prevented from navigating to Archangel— allowed, 1587.
long interred of peace,
rendered necessary
Christian IV., son, 1588-1648, eight years old, under a regency of four.
by the exhaustion
1590 Marriage of the princess Anne to James VI. of Scotland, whence
of its resources,
which reduces it to a
second-rate power.
1596 The king assumes the sovereignty: lolicited as an ally by both sides in the war of Spain with Holland, but remains neuter.
1572—95 War with Russia respecting Easthonia.
1578 Alliance with Poland against Russia.
1585 The king marries Gunilda, a Swedish lady, and conforms to Luther-
isss The Jesuits prohibited from settling in Sweden.
1587 The crown-prince elected king of Poland.
1590 War with Russia.
Sigismond, son, 1592-1604,
(king of Poland.)
A Catholic: is obliged to swear to support Lntberanism in Sweden at his coronation, 1594—returns to Poland.
Unnatural union under one hing of two countrirt differing in religion and lawt.
Charles duke of Suder-mania, the king’s uncle, regent.
1595 Peace with Russia; Carelia and Ingria given up.
Tlie Berent assumes Independent authority.
1598 The king lands in Sweden with a Polish army to re-establish his power, but is defeated and returns to Poland. War with Poland.
Albert. —1568.
Duke of Prussia as a vassal of Poland.
The power under the sovereign entirely with the nobles.
Disorders from religious quarrels and cabals.
Albert Frederic,
son, 1568-1618.
1569 Invested at Lublin by the king of Poland.
Joachim margrave or Brandenburg united in the investiture, with the reversion in case of Albert's line failing— hence the subsequent succession of Joachim’s descendants.
1573 Albert Frederic becomes imbecile.
1577 George Frederic, margrave of Anspach, regent-invested at Warsaw, 1578.
Disputes with Poland respecting Livonia.
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
33
GREAT MOGUL EMPIRE ESTABLISHED IN INDIA—AKBAR.
Poland.
Russia.
Ottoman Empire.
Persia.
India.
America.
Ivan IV. —1584.
1552 Kazan taken and the inhabitants massacred.
1552 English merchants at Archangel.
1554	Conquest of the Tartars of Astrakhan.
1555	The khan of Siberia tributary.
War with Sweden in Livonia : peace, 1557.
Sigismond Augustus. —1572.
Protestantism prevalent among the nobles.
1556 War with Livonia in behalf of the archbishop of Riga: peace, 1557.
1557 Offensive and defensive treaty of Poswal, with the Livonian knights against Russia.
1558-60 War of Russia with the Livonian branch of the Teutonic order:
Dreadful devastation: the last master, Gothard Kettler, cedes Livonia to Poland, by the treaty of Wilna, 1601, reserving Coorland'Sod Semigallia as an hereditary secolarlzed duchy
1562 War with Sweden, and with Russia, respecting Livonia.
1M3 The diet of Wilna admits Protestants to participate In all dignities, confirmed by the diet of Grodno, IMS, to all Christians of whatever sect.
Tamasf, —1576.
1552 Georgia invaded and devastated.
Souman (the Magnificent), —1566.
1551	Tripoli in Africa taken from the Maltese knights.
1552	Invasion of Hungary — conquest of Transylvania, made tributary under queen Isabella.
1553	Soliman, at the instigation of his favourite wife Roxalana, unjustly puts to death his eldest son Mustapha—it gives rise to discontent and mutinies among the troops.
1553 War with Persia renewed: Erivan taken, 1554 : peace 1555.
Building of the great mosque of Solimanyah at Constantinople.
1559 Naval victory of Galves on the African coast gained by Dragut over the Christians.
The military power of the Turks,
1562 Trucfe for eight years with the
The Mogul dynasty. HumayCn, —1556.
Invited to resume the government, 1554.
The Poles hard pressed by the
Russians in Livonia.
Ivan, upon the death of his wife, 1563, becomes a sanguinary tyrant.
1565 Massacre of the po-
!(illation of Novgorod or correspondence with Poland.
1562 An English ambassador, An-
„	.	-	»	thony Jenkinson,
mPire‘ at its greatest height in Persia.
Bajazet, second son of Soliman, flees into Persia: is given up and beheaded.
1565	Unsuccessful siege of Malta, defended by the grand-master John deUV*let,e- undtr Soliman.
1566	Invasion of Hungary—death of Soliman at the siege of Sigeth.
declines under
1569 Lithuania, hitherto a personal fief of the Jagellon family, incorporated as part of Po-
1878 Mxtlnotlon of the Javellona
by the death of Sigismond without issue.
Interregnum, 1572-4.
The kingdom, henceforth purely elective, became as it were a volcano in the midst of Europe: of eleven elections from 1574 to 1764 scarcely one was unanimous:,a wild spirit of faction reigned throughout.
Henry of Valois,
1574,5.
Obliged to sign (be Pacta con-tmta, releasing his subjects from their allegiance if he violates their privileges, and engaging not to marry without consent of the senate : abdicates next year on becoming king of Prance.
Stephen Bathobi,
1575-87,
prince of Transylvania.
1576 Marries Anna, sister of Sigismond Augustus.
Ukraine Cossacks subjugated.
1878 Alliance with Sweden against Bosnia i
the czar, attacked by the Tartars on the other side, sues for peace by the mediation of the Pope through the Jesuit Possevin: ceding Livonia to Poland by the peace of Zapolia, 1562, and Carelia and Ingria to Sweden 1683—Russia thus shut out from the Baltic. 1*81 The three high courts of Petrikau, Lublin, and Wilna, for the nobles. No plebeian to be ennobled without the consent of the Diet.
Prevalence of Sod-' nianism.
1582 Jesuits in Poland.
Sigismond III.
1587-1632,
son of John king of Sweden and Catherine, sister of Sigismond Augustus, elected by the influence ^of the palatine Zamol-ski against the archduke Maximilian, who is defeated and taken prisoner ' at Witzen, and forced to resign, 1589.
1570	First encounter with the Turks, on the Volga.
1571	Dawlut-Kherai, khan of Crim Tartary, devastates Russia, and bums Moscow—100,000 persons perish.
1574 First invasion of Siberia by the Cossack Hetman Yermak—it is conquered, and becomes subject to Russia, 1581—
1577 The Don Cossacks subject to Russia.
Printing iutroduced.
Selim II., 1566-74, son by Roxalana, indolent and luxurious—five brothers murdered.
1567 Peace with the Empire—each power to keep its present possessions.
his successors, who,
1570	War with Venice—conquest of Cyprus, 1571.
1571	Battle of Lepanto, Oct. 7—
The Turkish'flcet destroyed by the combined fleets of Spain and Italy under Don John of Austria—this great advantage not followed up by the Christians.
immersed in luxury,
1573	Peace with Venice: Cyprus yielded to the Porte.
1574	Goletta taken by the corsair Occhiali—the Spaniards driven from Tunis, which becomes tributary to
seldom head their
the Porte.
Khorassan overrun by continual incursions of the Usbeks in the old age of Tamasp.
Warsaw made the capital instead of Cracow.
1593 Goes to Sweden: returns, 1594.
1598 War with Sweden.
1584 Ivan puts his eldest son to death : dies himself the same year.
Feodor Ivanovich, son, 1584-98.
An imbecile prince; Boris Godunov, his brother-in-law, holds all the power; murders the czar’s only brother, Demetrius, 1591.
1587 Tobolsk in Siberia founded. 1580 Patriarch of Moscow—Independent of Constantinople.
1590 War with Sweden : peace of Teusina, ceding Carelia and Ingria to Russia, 1595.
Amurath or Murad III., son, 1574-95.
Peace with the Empire maintained till 1593. troops in person.
1876 War with Persia till 1690,
Insolence and increased I Mohammed Khoda-privileges of the Janizaries. | broth\™Di577-85.
1578 Invasion of Persia by the grand vizier and the khan of Crim Tartary—Tabreez and Shirwan conquered, but soon recovered by the Persians, who maintain a bloody but indecisive war — Hamzah, son of Mohammed, retrieves the Persian defeats, but is assassinated, 1584.
1580 War with the Druses in Syria.
1583	First trade with England—an English embassy at Constantinople,
1589.
1584	Revolt of the khan of Crim Tartary repressed by Osman pasha.
1585	Conquest of Van.
1589 Predatory incursions of the Cossacks.
Afghans at Delhi. Selim Shah Soob, —1553.
Distensions on Selim's death.
1554	Defeats Sikander Shah Soor, who flees into Bengal.
1555	Takes Delhi and Agra—dies, 1556.
Jelaleddin Akbar, son, 1556-1605.
1556 Kandahar conquered by Persia.
Beiram Khan, regent: defeats a general revolt of Hindoos and Afghans under Hemoo:
Mogul power Anally established, 1888.
The Usbeks threaten Northern India.
1558 Portuguese defeated at Bulcar by the king of Guzerat.
1561	Beiram Khan disgraced and murdered. The Mogul empire
1562	Marwar and Malwa conquered.
Is raised to
The Hindoos tolerated and raised to public employments by Akbar. a high pitch of
1564 Agra fortified and made the capital— League of the Moslems in the Dekkin against the Hindoo raja of Beejanuggur: victory of Talikote.
splendour
1566	Revolt of Akbaris brother, Mohammed Hukeem.
by Akbar, a
1567	Chittoor taken by storm from the Rqjpoots. munificent patron of
1570 Confederacy of the Dekkin kings against the Portuguese; unsuccessful siege of Goa for ten months: peace. 1571.	^	’
1571	Futtehpoor Sicri founded.
selenoe and literature,
1572	Conquest of Guzerat completed by Akbar in person.
in which he Is
1575 Bahar and part of Bengal conquered from Daud Khan Kirani, the successor of Sikander Shah Soor.
assisted by
1578	Final subjugation of Malwa. his celebrated ministers,
1579	Mohammed Hukeem again rebels, and is subdued.
Aba Taxi and Sheikh Falsi (brothers).
1580	Revolt of Guzerat—again subdued, 1584, but not completely subjugated till 1593, when Muzuffer Shah, the last king of Guzerat, committed suicide in despair.
Ferishta says he possessed
1553
New Mexico discovered by the Spaniards.
1569 English merchants reach Persia by way of Russia and the Caspian sea.
1571 Great plague and famine.
Ismail II., son, 1576, 7, preferred by the nobles to his brother Hyder: puts to death most of the royal line: dies from' a debauch of wine.
1583 Destructive inroads of the Usbeks in Khorassan.
Abbas the Great, son, 1585-1627, the greatest of the Soofi dynasty. 1586-8 Attempts without success to recover Tabreez and Erivan.
1590 Peace: the Turks keep Georgia, Erivan, and Tabreez.
1698 Extinction if the Rurict, by the death of Feodor, after having governed Russia 736 years, under 52 sovereigns.
Boris Godunov, 1598-1605,
raised to the throne by the clergy and Boyars.
Revolt ofthe Janizaries.
1598 War in Hungary with the Empire.
1594 The grand vizier defeats the archduke Mathias, and takes Raab.
Mohammed III., son, 1595-1603.
Nineteen brothers strangled, and all his father’s pregnant wives drowned.
Turkish power in Hungary declines.
1595 The Turks defeated at Gran— Revolt of Wallachia.
1597 Mohammed heads his troops in person, and defeats the Germans at Agria.
Revolts in Asia Minor, and tumults between the Spahis and Janizaries.
1591 Abbas gains a
Seat victory at erat over the Usbeks, and expels them from Kho-
1597 Acquisition of Balkh in Khorassan, and of Bahrein on the Arabian coast.
1550 The Portogueie renew the foundation, of settlemenu in Brazil.
1561 Sayrl-Capac, a descendant of the ancient incaa of Peru, submits td the Spaniards, and accepts a pension—he is poisoned, 1562—his brother reftises to leave his refuge in the moun-
1564 Collgni sends a colony of Uugoenots to Florida—destroyed by the Spaniards, who hang all the French as heretics. The French retake it 1565, and hang the Spaniard*— abaudon it, 1567.
6000 war elephants,
1584	Bengal finally conquered, and a revenue in gold equal
1585	The court fixed at Lahore, to watch the designs of Abdoolla Khan Usbek.
to ten millions sterling.
1586	Cashmeer conquered.
Foot posts established for
1590 War with Mirza Jani Bek of Sind, conquered, 1592.
1592 Mooltan conquered. Homage demanded from the Dekkin kings, but refused: war with Dekkin.
the conveyance of letters.
_________deracy of
the Dekkin against the Moguls—Battle of Sonput, 1597—Conquest of Ahmudnuggur and Berar, 1597.
1597	Death of Abdoolla Khan—The capital again fixed at Agra)
1598	Conquest of Asseer, Candeish, etc.— The Dekkin invaded by Akbar in person, and made tributary, 1599.
1572 Manilla built by Spain, and made the seat of a viceroy. Annual galleons there— Acapulco.
1578 Sir F. Drake takes possession of California — discovers and ex-
Elores New Al-ion.
15S0 Buenos Ayres, in Paraguay, refounded by Ortiz—he divides the country Into four large provinces—Tu-cuman, Santa Cruz, Paraguay, and Rio de la Plata.
1582 Drake ravages the coasts of Peiu.
1584 First English colony in N. America founded in Virginia by Sir W. Raleigh.
1586 Drake takes St. Domingo.
1587 Queen Elizabeth sends an expedition under Hawkins to explore the straits of Magellan—he discovers the Falkland isles, 1594.
Sir Francis Drake attacks the Spanish settlements.
1596 Raleigh’s unsuccessful expedition to Brazil, and in search of El Dorado.
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1600 English at Surat.
1600
b
d
f
34
Table xiv.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Seventeenth
1600
1610
1620
1630
STRUGGLES OF THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT-CIVIL WARS-CROMWELL.
The English Constitution.
The government of England still a monarchy greatly limited by law, but exercising continually a degree of arbitrary power hurtful to liberty, and upon which there is no sufficient restraint. Parliament struggles to remedy this evil, and does not rest till it has done so.
Disputes between the Crown and Parliament.
1604 The first parliament disputes with the king respecting its irivileges—refuses its sanction to a legislative union between ECngland and Scotland—and attempts to abolish some of the king’s assumed prerogatives.
The weak character and extravagance of James increase the power of the Commons, already backward in voting money, and bent upon lessening royal prerogatives and redressing national grievances.
1640
1650
Great Britain.
France.
I
House of Stuart, 1603-S8—England and Scotland Vnlted.
James I. (king of Scotland), 1603-25.
Great-grandson of Margaret, daughter of Henry VIII.
1603 Cecil minister—conspiracy of Raleigh and Cubham in favour of lady Arabella Stuart suppressed.
Peace till the end of this reign.
1605 The Gunpowder Plot, 1004 Conferences at Hampton court to reconcile high chnrch-concocted by the Catholics to meu am* Puritans unsuccessful. Tolerance was equally hateful blow up the two booses of	-TS
parliament, and place the in- one religion ill substance and ceremony.'* Bancroft and (be high fant princess Elizabeth on the	Party persecute the puritans-deemepiscopacy and the
, r ,	,	,	■ 1 j	apostolical succession fundamentals—slight the reformed churches
throne, detected and punished, abroad, and lean towards the Catholics.
1606 James takes the title of King of Great Britain.
Abolition of the Brehon laws in Ireland: English law substituted, and a regular House of Commons. —Ulster colonised by Scotch aud English l’rotestants ; the English laws of succession introduced instead of gavel and tanistry ; courts of justice throughout the kingdom.
1610 Court of High Commission in Scotland.
1611 Institution of baronets: to raise money for the colonisation of Ulster.
1621 Increasing hatred of despotism.
The advocates of absolute power and the high church Authored version of the Bible published.
1612 Death of Henry, prince of Wales, aged 18.
Earl of Essex’s divorce, 1013.
English factories in the East at Surat, 1612, Gombroon, 1613.
The opposition in parliament including for the first 1613 Marriage 0f princess Elizabeth with Frederick, the elector-palatine, time some Deers, becomes organised and consistent. Sir	°	1	’	1
Ministry of Villicrs, duke of Buckingham, 1616-28.
1616 The cautionary towns restored to the Dutch for £250,000.
1617 James visits Scotland. Dcath of Shakspcare> aged M-
time some peers, becomes organised and consistent.
Edward Coke takes up the popular cause.
Formation of a court party and a country party— afterwards whigs andtories.
Revival of impeachments.
Lord chancellor Bacon impeached, couvictcd and fined £40,000 for corruption—Tlie impeachment of the carl of Middlesex, 1624,
■stablislies this constitutional privilege.
Protestation of the Commons in favour of their own rights 1618 Negotiations of marriage between Charles, prince of Wales, and the Infanta of and independence; the king imprisons several of their leaders. Spain—Buckingham and the prince visit Spain, 1623—match broken off, 1624.
1010 James refuses to aid his son-in-law, the elector palatine in Bohemia, to the great ,l':-------------------------------------abandonment of the protestant--
A deep and lasting love of freedom had now taken hold of every class, (except perhaps the elergy,) which, opposed to
Dispntf9 with the Scotch church on the king’s ecclesiastical supre-
1618 Sir Walter Raleigh’s unsuccessful voyage to Tronic's with the Puritans in Eng-America—beheaded on his return.	land, who desire a further reform
in the church,
discontent of the nation, who consider (his ai
the high pretensions of the court, leads to the violent struggle 1624 Rupture with Spain.
of the next reign,
1625 Charles’s first parliament, remembering that none of the chief grievances had been redressed, votes supplies slowly, and is dissolved—the second, 1626, is dissolved for :~ipeaching Buckingham. Sir John Elliot, Sir Dudley Digges, e sent to the Tower by the king for their conduct in parliament ; as also the earl of Arundel in the Lords—the king is obliged to set them at liberty.
These frequent dissolutions irritate the public mind.
1626 Forced loan levied hy the king.
Letters are issued to the lord-licntenants of all the counties, setting forth what sum each person should pay; an approacli towards a regular system of arbitrary taxation, which the nation would not bear. Darnel, Corbet, Earl, Heveninghain, Hampden, and many
others, arc imprisoned for non-payment. ’P1— J----------------
tlipin and thus confirm to the crown t' meat, and set at nought every statute desigued to protect the personal liberties of Englishmen.
The whole nation becomes indignant at this stretch of arbitrary power over person and property, and at the king’s systematic attempts to obtain absolute power.
English troops levied for the Palatine, but no effect.
Charles I. 1625-49, son, marries Henrietta Maria of France.
The duke of Buckingham continues prime minister, to the great discontent of the nation.
1627 ir«r with France in support of the IIu- Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury, a hater of guenots-Duke of Buckingham’s unsuccessful
expedition to Rhc.	them to the utmost.—Old popish ceremonies re-
vived, new ones created.
Varions attempts made to raise money without parlia- Many ministers ejected for refusing to meuls Contract for troops and ammunition from read the Book of Sports, allowing Sundav
rlanders, to awe the nation into obedience.	„______ »,	J
pastimes, numbers endeavour to escape
1629 Vo parliament for eleven yean.
1620 Charter of Massachusetts.
Ministry of Wentworth, earl of Strafford, 1630-41—Laud in church affairs.
1628 New parliament called to raise supplies for the 1633 The king visits Scotland, holds a parlia-	\m°re ;ee'inf’on ac:
French war-it erabod.es the pressing grievances of the na- ment and is crowned at Edinburgh.	fheVow^hTriliSolf0 ^
tion, viz. forced loans, arbitrary imprisonments, billeting of	’	lDe leamn£ towards that religion.
this tyranny and persecution by emigrating to Holland and America.
T .... . -----j	1638 Proclamation forbidding persons to go
lyment. The	refuse In b;iil 1G30 Peace with France and Spain, without	the sea without a licence and a teati-
un the right of arbitrary imprison-	4.	, .	r	r*i tt r \ Ai_ cental of conformity: the lords Say and
nte from the time of Magna Charta,	Stipulations in fd\OUr of the Huguenots Or the Brook, Sir Arthur Haslerig, Hampden, and
..r	Palatine.	Cromwell, with many other men of rank and
character, on the eve of embarking for America, *-t are stopped by an order of council.
These severe proceedings of the court and church against the Puritans are received with more bitter feelings, on ac-„ shown to Cathoi' the leaning towards that religion.
The queen catholic, and court nearly so— the exercise of that religion is wiuked at by Charles —Panzini is received by him as an accredited minister (1635), his avowed object being to reconcile the English church to Rome —numerous proselytes. It was the direct aim of Laud and his school to copy the exterior forms of the Rouiish church in pictures, bow-rev wmen	dre88’ naines' consecrations; in the doc-
have read trine8 of ,tlc real presence, invocations of saints, prayers for the dead, confessions,celibacy, etc.: Catholicism, the divine right of episcopal go-
___	a , a. ...... . veruinent and passive obedience are encouraged,
rection takes place—the Scotch organise a new ?nd, *'hll.e lhe reformed churches abroad arc form of government, 1638-	.rea.edw.th contempt, and,hePur,,ansa, home
The community is divided into four classes: nobility,
'entry, clergy, and burgesses; they send delegates to
soldiers on private persons, setting up martial law, etc., the	Petition of Bight*,
agreed to by both houses, and, (reluctantly,) by the king.
1629 Disputes respecting tonnage and poundage: parliament objects to it as a tax levied upon goods and merchandise
Prynne, Burton and Bastwick, Lilbnrne, Leighton, Williams, ami others, cruelly maltreated by the court of Star-chamber.
Scotch troubles, 1637.
It being Charles’s design to overthrow the Scotch
without authority of law—this and religious disputes moves Presbyterian church, aud to make that nation adopt the	1
the king to a sudden dissolution. Several members im- English episcopal form, Laud prepares a liturgy, which trines of th’
the king to a sudden dissolution. Several members imprisoned by the king for their speeches in parliament.
the bishops of Edinburgh are commanded t<
publicly, at Easter, 1637. The attempt occasious
The most illegal exactions are now resorted to for raising Great tumults at Edinburgh, a general insur-money—compositions for knighthood, forest laws, mono-polies, etc., but the prime resource was
1634 Ship money,
formerly levied only on the sea-ports, but now extended all ^uburgh/who'draw'
over the kingdom, as a regular impost—trial .of Hampden	’ . ,	,
for refusing to pay it: the judges pronounce against him, b llich M biml llien)Selvc, l0 defend their social and tvC'Z‘the mSrn which increases the discontent.	.i.«	*iVOUI ui me mouern
driven to despair, the Catholics feel elated, at a coming triumph.
1640 Tyranny, folly, and rashness of the bishops:—they seek to carry religious
All these abuses are upheld and extended by an unsparing exercise of the
most tyrannical proceedings in the court of Star-chamber,
i innovations—the et ceetera oath imposed on the clergy.
Fanatic intolerance of the Presbyterians.
War with Scotland, 1639—temporary pacification of Berwick : ineffectual—Charles, reduced to the greatest distress, compelled to call a parliament, 1640—dissolved without
which takes cognizance of nearly every kind of offence, and effecting anything. A fatal crisis for the king’s popularity—many, before loyal, turned all misdemeanours; adjudging any punishment short of from him. The Scotch invade England—Charles, without means, summons all his death. Fine and imprisonment are the most usual, the nobles to the council of York, which joins in the national cry for a new parliament, former as profitable ; but the pillory, whipping, branding,
and cutting off the ears, grow into use, as party feeling be- Meeting of the Bong Parliament, Vov. 3,1640. Presbyterianism predominates. comes more vindictive.	Attack on the king’s party. Impeachment of Strafford and Laud. Tricnniul Bill, by
The Long Parliament, an assembly of doubtful character,	whjch every parliament is of itself dissolved in three years—ship-money, tonnage
effected more for our liberties than any that had gone before	anc* poundage, and all other imposts without parliament abolished ; as also the
or has followed it, but unfortunately fell into contempt, from Star-chamber, High Commission Court, and all other arbitrary tribunals, its own weakness, before Cromwell.	Act against the dissolution oj parliament without its own consent.
General revolt of the Irish Catholics, and massacre of the Protestants.
1641 Strafford beheaded.
A schism takes place in the constitutional party—the more violent opposers of the Court, headed by Pym, Hampden, Hollis, Haslerig, nnd Strode, etc., get the upper hand—they draw up the Remonstrance.	Bishops expelled parliament.
642 Cha on its f
Civil ws
all otlu-r	.	.	.	......
Cavaliers: the former austere, rigid, and fanatic ; the latter ostentatious, insolent, and dissolute.
The King’s party at first successful: 1642, Battle of Edgehill, indecisive, but favourable—on the king’s advance to Colnbrook, parliament snes for peace—negotiations at Oxford—the republican party oppose peace, impeach the queen—discovery of Waller’s plot strengthens their cause; the king weakens his by a declaration denying the title of parliament to the two houses at Westminster, and by his im[>olitic conduct towards the earls Holland, Bedford, and Clare, moderators, who leave the parliament to join him. ---------------------------------------- .u.	„„ tfewburj, —•=............................-
1643 Essex raises the siege of Gloucester, gains the battle of N
—parliament makes a new great seal—the
Solemn league and Covenant between the Scotck and English parliaments, turns the tide of affairs against the king—21,000 Scots invade England, Jan., 1644—the king unsuccessful in his attempts to bring over a body of Irish, only increases his unpopularity thereby.
Defeat Of XLupert at Marston-Moor—1645, Fruitless treaty of Uxbridge; the parliamentary propositioi the royalists under Montrose in Scotland.	Essex and Manchester suspected of lukew:
The self-de ny i n g ord i na nee raises the Independents, under Vane and Cromwell, to great power in parliament.
The army new-modelled—mostly composed of Independents, fanatics, and republicans— and improved by the better discipline and superior talents of Fairfax and Cromwell.
Battle of Haseby io England, and of Philip-haugh in Scotland, ruin the king, and place the parliament and nation in the hands of Fairfax and Cromwell.
1646	The king takes refuge with the Scots—choosing rather to be no king than to desert the Church and adopt Presbyterianism. The queen’s bad conduct and advice. The king much injured by the publication of his letters taken at Naseby, and his treaty with Glamorgan in favour of the Catholics. The Scots sell the king to parliament for j6’400,000.
1647	The army under Cromwell overawes the parliament, and seizes tlie king. He rejects its proposals fouuded on two-year parliaments, equal and popular representation, liberty of conscience, w ith a modification of the Established Church.
Scotch invasion.—The Presbyterians and Constitutionalists for a short time recover their power in parliament.—Treaty of Newport—The army determines to bring the king to trial. 1648 Cromwell routs the Scotch army under Hamilton.
1648 The Presbyterians expelled from parliament by Col. Pride.
1649 Trial and execution of the King, Tan. 30, by the High Court of Justice, formed by an ordinance of the Rtunp.
Monarchy and the House of Bords abolished.
House of Bourbon.
Henry IV., the Great, —1610.
The Ducdc Sully minister, & iutendant of finances 1600-1 War with Savoy for the territory of Saluces,instead of which Savoy surrenders, by the treaty of Lyons, 1601, Bresse, Bugei, and Val-Romei.
1602 Execution of the due de Biron, for conspiring with Spain and Savoy. lfl03 The Jc8ui„ reca„e(|>
The turbulent spirit of the nobles repressed by policy rather than severity. Encouragement of manufactures and agriculture—the silk manufacture introduced.
1610 Henry forms a plan for hnmbling the house of Austria, and uniting all the European states into one federal republic—is assassinated by Ravaillac.
Revenue of France 30 millions of livres.
LoursXIII. 1610-43,son, nine years old.
Mary of Mcdicis, the queen-mother, regent.
1610	Confirmation of the edict of Nantes.
1611	Sully retires—dies, 1041.
1012 The Huguenots suspicious of the government— renewed tnrbulcnce of the nobles, jealous of the iu6uenee of Concini, Marcchal d’Ancrc, and the favourite de Luynes, “Peace of St. Menehould” between the king and nobles, 1014.
1614 The king declared of age—marries,
1615,	Anne, d. of Philip of Spain.
1614	Bast assembly of the States-
general—ineffectual from the misunderstanding prevailing between the three orders.
1615	Condd heads the malecontents and Huguenots—civil war—Peace of Loudon,
1616.
1619 The queen-mother escapes and heads the malecontents—treaty of pacification concluded at Angoulcme.
1021 Huguenot war— the Huguenots headed by Rohan and Soubise—concluded Oct., 1022, by the treaty of Montpelier, confirming the edict of Nantes,
Ministry of Cardinal Rlchellen, 1624-42—His foreign p«>licy aims at the depression of the Austrian family, both in Spain and Germany—while in his domestic administration, he carries out to the utmost tlie plans of Henry IV. and Sully for checking the power of tlie nobles and clergy, paving the way for the despotism of Louis XlV. and XV.
1625-6 Second Huguenot war— unfavourable to the Protestants—concluded by a fresh edict of Pacification, April 1026.
1627 Suppression of the offices of constable of France, and of high admiral.
1627-	9 Third and last Huguenot war—the Huguenots supported by England—Rochelle reduced by famine, after a siege of ten months, 1627-8.—The Hnguenotssubmit, and are disarmed and deprived of their fortresses, but allowed the exercise of their religion by the Pacification of Nismes, 1629.
1628-	31 Mantuan war of succession (see Italy).—Peace with England, 1630.
1630	Subsidiary treaty with Holland against Spain—and with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden against Austria, 1631.
1031 The Gazette de France.
1631	Peace of Chierasco in Italy.
1631-4 Troubles caused by the intrigues
of the queen-mother—she is banished to Cologne, and dies, 1641—the duke of Lorraine, who had supported her, driven firom his dominions till 1659.
1635	Alliance with Holland against Spain, for the partition of the Austrian Netherlands, involves France in the Thirty Years’
War' Institution of the Academie Francaisc.
1636	Alliance with Sweden against Austria —invasion of Gascony by the Spaniards, and of Picardy by the Imperialists, who threaten Paris.
1638	Invasion of Spain by the French, and fruitless siege of Fontarabia.
1639	The French defeated atThionville hy Piccoloraini.—Sedition of the Nuds-pieds in Normandy quelled.
1640	Turin taken by the French.
Tlie first Louis d’ors struck.
1641	Alliance with Portugal against Spain. Catalonia and Roussillon revolt from Spain, and submit to France.
1642	Cinq-Mars and de Thou beheaded for a conspiracy against Richelieu, who dies soon after, aged 58.
Louis XIV. the Great, 1643-1715, son, five years old.
Anne of Austria, queen-mother, regent.
1643	Victory of Rocroi by Condo over the Spaniards—-destruction of tlie renowned Spanish infantry.
1648 Peace of Westphalia i
France acquires Alsace, Suudgaw, Brisach, etc., and the Empire for the first time cedes Metz, Toi' and Verdun, possessed by France since 1552.
1648-53 Pactions of the Fronde:
the popular party called Frondeurs, tlie court party Mazurins.
1648	Discontent at the mismanagement of the finances—the parliament of Paris refuses to register the new taxes—the imprisonment of the president Broussel produces a revolt in Paris, fomented by de Retz, called
“ La journee des barricades.”
1649	The court removes to St. Germains: —siege of Paris :—treaty of Ruel.
1650	The prince of Condo, Conti, and Longueville .imprisoned by the queen-regent : Turenne Hees to tlie Spaniards.
b
l£
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
35
37
SPAIN DECLINES AND FRANCE RISES IN POWER.
Portugal and
Spain.
Italy.
Naples & Sicily.
Popes and Church History.
United till 1040.
Philip III. —1621.
Dutch	all power in the hands of
the minister Lerma— Portugal oppressed Decay of the revenue, by the Spanish
authorities.	1604 Peace with England.
The trade of Spain with the East and West Indies cut off almost entirely by the Dutch, who are masters of the sea.
1607 Moluccas conquered by the Dutch.	Kapld
1609 Twelve years’ truce with the Dutch, and acknowledgment of their independence.
Venice,Genoa. | Tuscany. | Savoy. | Lombardy Republics.	& Milan.
Ferdinand Charles- Spanish. de Medici,	Emanuel,	Modena under
grand-duke,	the Great,	Est«^-°Panna
—1609.	—1630.	nnder Farnese
—and Mantoa
1601 Peace of Lyons, between Savoy and France
1000-7 Dispute of Ve-	Savoy cedes Gcx,
nice with the Pope,	Val-Romcl, and
on account of a Ve-	Bugei, but retains
netian edict against	Saluces.
le.J°°r	' 1602 Unsuccess-
ful attempt to take Geneva by escalade.
cal buildingE-settled bv Ihe mediation of France.
Philip III. ofSpaiD, —1621.
These kingdoms continue to be treated as Spanish provinces— ruled by oppressive viceroys, and never visited by the king, though the court of Madrid obtains vast sums from them by arbitrary taxation.
1000 Dispute o
Clement VIII. —1605. Christianity preached in China by the Jesuits under Ricci.
Emigrations of ihe English Puritans to North America.
Leo XI. (dei Medici), 1605, one month.
During this century, the contest between
He Dutch obtain free navi- 1609-10 Expulsion of the Moors— getion to India 800,000 leave Spain for Africa—const-9 ,j.„	• f quent ruin of Spanish manufactures and
-—tnc rum oj	agriculture—revenue propped by raising
Portuguese the excise, and tampering with the coinage trade.	—unpopularity of Lerma.
1613-17 Wars of the Montferrat succession in Italy.
ms Marriage of the Infanta Anne Louis XIII. of France: aqdof Philip, prince of Asturias, to Elizabeth of France.
Spain.
1010 Death of Cervantes.
1617	Treaty of succession with Austria—
Philip, now next heir to the emperor Mathias, as son of his tldett sister Anne, cedes bis right in favour of Ferdinand, Archduke of Gratz, afterwards Emperor.
1618	Lerma, supplanted by his own son, the duke d’Uzeda, retires in disgrace:—Government by prime ministers now become a part of the System.
1621-48 Dutch war.
Spain supports Austria during the Thirty Years’ War.
i; Philip IV., son, 1621-65, marries Isabella of France, 1621.
Ministry of the “ Count-Duke” of Olivarez.
622 Loss of 1023 Premiums offered on early marriages, Ormus to to supply the deficiency of population cou-Persia.	sequent on the expulsion of the Moors.
1624 Defeat of the Spanish fleet in South America off Lima, by the Dutch.
Alienation of 1625 Naval war with England,
1612-17 Wars with the Dalmatian and Istrian pirates called Uscocci, and with their protector, Ferdinand, archduke of Gratz.
1613-17 War between Savoy and Spain from tbe aggressions of the former on Montferrat : peace, on the former footing, 1617.
1610 Viceroyalty of the duke ofOssuna in Sicily, and in Naples 1615—he represses the depredations of the Turks on the coasts.
The “ Spanish Triumvirate” in Italy: Bedmar envoy at Venice; Toledo, viceroy of Lombardy; and Ossuna in Naples.
FlonrliUng state
of the
Arts, Sciences, and
1618 The famous conspiracy of Bedmar, the Spanish envoy, to seize Venice, and reduce it under subjection to Spain, detected and prevented.
paelflo role of the Medlel.
Leghorn
the Emporium of the Levant trade: the grand-duke the most wealthy prince in Europe.
FerdjnandII. son, 1621-70.
putesconceming the Valteline.
The Spanish governors in Milan assisting the Catholics against their Grison masters: the importance of the territory was its communicating on one side with the German, on the other with the Italian dominions of the Hdfese of Austria.
the crown domains.
arising from her accession to the Protestant Confederation.
1628-31 Wars of the Mantuan succession in Italy.
1630 Peace with England.
, 1630-36	1631 Peace of Chierasco puts ar
end to the Spanish ascendency in Brazil and Italy.
1620 Ossuna attempts to establish an independent sovereignty in Naples, but is foiled by cardinal Boija.
Philip IV. of Spain, son, 1621-65— like his father, never visited his Italian kingdoms.
1639	Loss of the Japan- 1639 The Spanish fleet
ese trade, from the sup- sent to act against the pfession of Christianity Swedes, destroyed in the m Japan.	Downs by the Dutch
1640	Malacca taken by under Van Tromp. the Dutch.
16*0 Portugal revolts and regains her lnde-
entirely
lost.
1635	The elector of Treves attacked by Spain, and supported by France.
War with France, 1635-59.
1636	The Spaniards invade Languedoc and Gascony without any results.
Calderon, dramatist
1638 The French invade Spain, and besiege Fontarabia, but are repulsed.
1625-31 War between Genoa and Savoy for the territory of Zaccarello—
Savoy supported by France, Genoa by Spain: tbe allies propose to subdue Geuoa, and divide her territory; but sbe maintain* herself, and concludes an advantageous peace, 1031.
1627 Conspiracy of the plebeians in Genoa, under Vachero, against the aristocracy, detected and suppressed.
1628-31 General Italian war on the death of the duke of Mantua, the last male of'the Gonzagas:
Spain wishes to divide the duchy with the duke of Savoy : France aids the collateral heir, the dnke de Rhetel, of the House of Never*.
Venice and the Pope side Tuscany and Savoy with France.	with Spain.
VlCTOR-
Amadeus I. son, 1630-7.
1631 Peaee Of CblerUMO—Charles of Ncvers acknowledged dnke of Mantua and Montferrat, and invested by the Emperor—the dnke of Savoy acquire* part of Montferrat in exchange for Pignerol, etc., ceded to France.
1635 Alliance with France Ferdinand contributes against Spain : invasion of large sums to the	the Milanese.
Spain loses the predominancy In
support of the	Francis-
Emperor in the	Hyacinth,
Thirty Years' War. son, 1637-8.
Paul V. (Borghese), 1605-21. Pop<ry and Pr0,e*'
x 6	"	tantism, and the on-
1605-7 The Congregations “ De ceasing efforts of Auxiliis” resumed, but without Catholics to recover effect.	their ascendency,were
1606 Papal brief, forbidding the ,he Primary cauae of English Catholics to ta^e the w,r*lD *everal conn-oath Of allegiance.	tries: the Hugnenot
1606 Rupture between the Pope war* ln Franc*> and Venice.	Th,rty Yeara’ War’
„	,	.... and In some measure
Excommunication against Venice— . „ ... . , the Venetians declare It void, and ,he Br,Ush clv'11 banish the Jesuits and Capuchins from are referrable to tills
rp.	, rather political than
!607 The Pope reconciled to relie,ong event., they Venice by the mediation of wU1 ^ fonnd nnder Henry IV. of France.	the respective conn-
1610 “Bull of Paul V.” con- triw> firming that“In Ccm& Domini."
1614 Great dissensions at Leyden on predestination, between the Gomarists and Arminians, decided in favour of the former, 1618, by the
Synod of Dordrecht.
1615 Persecution of the Christians in Japan, ending in their total suppression there, 1632.
Last attempts to form a union between the Greek and Roman churches: frustrated, 1621, by Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, who attempts to introduce Protestant doctrines.
1620 Reformation of the French Benedictines— “ Congregation of St. Maur” founded.
1620 The famous convent of Port-Royal about this time—destroyed, 1709.
Gregory XV. (Ludovizio), 1621-3.
1622	Founds the famous congregation, Pro propa-gandd Fide at Rome, consisting©? thirteen cardinals, two priests, a monk, and a secretary.
1623	The famous library of the Palatine at Heidelberg sent to Rome by die elector of Bavaria.
Urban VIII. (Barberini), 1623-44.
The contest between Presbyterianism and Episcopacy in England terminated by the triumph of the former during the civil wurs: but the Episcopal Church is fully reinstated on the Restoration.
1627 The Propagandist college, under the Congregation, for the education of missionaries,
1039 Vanini burnt at Toulouse for atheism.
1632 The Order of “ Priests of the Missions” founded.
1634 The Jesuits and other Catholics finally expelled from Abyssinia by the emperor Basilides.
pendenee under
John IV. duke of Braganza, 1640-56.
1640 General revolt of the Catalonians; they proclaim a republic, but transfer their allegiance to France, 1641.
War with Spain, till 1668, but not conducted with vigour.
1641 Independence confirmed by acclamation by the Cortes at Lisbon, and acknowledged by all the colonies, except Ceuta: alliance with France, and peace with Holland, but the war in the colonies continued till 1661—the Dutch conquests are not restored.
Intrigues of Spain
for the recovery of Portugal.
1641 Revolt in Andalusia suppressed.
1643 Battle of Rocroi in Champagne; the veteran Spanish infantry destroyed by the French under d’Enghein (the Great Cond6).
1643 Olivarez dismissed— Conde de Haro minister.
16*8 Peace of Weit>
Ztaly, and Prance
Charles-Emanuel II. 1638-75, brother.
acquiree great Influence.
Disputes for the regency betvxen the duchess-mother, Christina of France, and the prince of Carignan, uncle, head of the Spanish party—the French enter Turin, 1639, and establish Christina.
The United Provinces fully Independent—the Dutch to retain all their European conquests. Spain joins in the peace only as an ally of the Empire, and continues at war with France.
IMS The Maltese gallics, after capturing a Turkish galleon, lake shelter in tbe ports of Crete: hence
War with the Turks, 1645-69, who invade Candia, which becomes the theatre of war.
1646 Eighty-one new families admitted into the aristocracy, on the payment of 100,000 ducats each. lG48 Commencement of the siege of Candia by the Turks: lasts till 1669.
1640 Conspiracy of Sanzo in favour of France, frustrated by the viceroy Don Francisco de Mello.
1647 New taxes imposed by the viceroy, duke de Arcos, cause much discontent.
Hevolt of Vaples
under
thefamous fisherman— upon his death the duke of Guise is made doge.
1648 The insurrection suppressed by Don Jonn and the count de Onate—the duke of Guise sent prisoner ______to Spain.
1638 Cyrillus Lucaris, after having been deposed four times, put to death by the Porte.
The Pansonlits founded by Tansenluo, Blobop ofTpreo.
1640 Rise of the controversy on Divine Grace between the Jansenists and Jesuits.
Rise of the Antinomians, Brownists, Millenarians, ami other sects, during the civil wars in England.
1643 Papal edict for diminishing the inconvenient number of holidays.
1644-5 The “Charitable Conferences” at Thom, between the Calvinists, Catholics, and Lutherans, by order of the Polish king, in the fruitless hope of reconciling religious differences.
Innocent X. (Panfili), 1644-55.
Christianity preached in Siam, Tonquin, etc. by the Jesuits, under Alexander de Rhodes. Disputes of the Dominicans and Jesuits on the toleration of some pagan superstitions by the latter.
The Pope entirely under the influence of his sister-in-law, Donna Olympia Maldachini.
1647 First establishment of tbe “ Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts" in England.
Origin of the sect of Friends, or Qnakets.
1640 The Pope refuses to acknowledge or confirm the Portuguese bishops nominated by John IV. of Braganza.___________________________________________
IGOO
1610
1620
1630
1640
1650
g
34	36
Continuation of Table xiv.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Seventeenth
GREAT POWER OF HOLLAND.
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR-WALLENSTEIN.
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1650
Netherlands.
The Dnich and Belgian provinces henceforth separated — the former a republic under the presidency of the house of Orange—the latter subject, under Spain, to the archduchess Isabella and her husband
Maurice of Orange,—1625, stadtholder and commander-in-chief.
1609 Dutch East India Belgium. Company : invested 1602 Spinola takes with the government the command, of the Indian conquests.
1604 Ostend capitulates after a siege of more than three years.
1607 Conquest of the Moluccas from Portugal: Amboyna and Banda settled.
1609 Truce with Spain for twelve years — the provinces acknowledged independent of the archdukes: their subjection to Spain waived.
Bank of Amsterdam established.
1611 First intercourse with Japan.
1614 Religious distensions of Gornar and Armmiwsat Leyden—the former supported by the stadtholder, the latter by the pensionary Barneveldt.
1616	The cautionary towns of Brill, Flushing, and Rammekins, restored by the English on the payment of £250,000.
1617	The stadtholder aims at absolute power.
1618, 19 Synod of Dordrecht—
Condemnation of the Arminians or " Remonstrants:”—unjust execution of Barneveldt, 1610.
1610 Batavia founded, and made the seat of government In India.
Subsidies to the revolted Bohemian Pro-
1621 War with Spain renewed— Spinola commands in Belgium.
West India Company founded.
1623 Arminian conspiracy against the tyranny of the stadtholder—suppressed.
Massacre of the English in Amboyna.
Henry Frederick, brother, 1625-47.
Extends toleration to the Arminians.
1625 Breda taken by Spinola. 1627-9 Naval successes of Hein in the West Indies: the Spanish plate-fleet taken off Cuba, 1628. 1628 Spinola removed to the command in Italy.
1631 Acquisition of St. Eustatius, the first West Indian settlement —Curayao, 1684—Brazil gradually subdued by count Maurice of Nassau.
1633 Belgium reverts to Spain on the death of the archduchess Isabella childless.
1635 Alliance with France—the French invade Belgium—invasion unsuccessful.
The United
1637 Breda retaken by the stadtholder.
Acquisition of Elmina on the Gold-coast.
1639	Great naval victory by Tramp over the Spanish fleet in the Downs, Oct. 21. 50 ships taken, burnt, or sunk.
at the height
1640	Settlements in Malacca— and in Ceylon, 1644.
of their
power
William II. son, 1647-50. and grandeur.
1618 Peace
1650 The stadtholder vainly attempts to seize Amsterdam, and make himself absolute—dies of the small-pox.
Switzerland.
The Swiss take little or no part in the general politics of Europe during this century.
1602 The duke of Savoy unsuccessfully attempts to surprise Geneva. Renewal of the alliance with France.
from
and
Spanish
factions.
1618 Switzerland neutral in the Thirty Years’ War.
1620 The Spaniards occupy the Valteline, in order to protect the Catholic inhabitants against the Grisons,who call in France on the other side: consequent disputes.
death by the pasha of Buda for tampering with Austria, and succeeded by Bethlem Gabor,
1618 The house of Brandenburg succeeds to the Prague on the demon-	mi3—28.
....6	tion of a Protestant 1618 Ferdinand crowned
church —— Ferdinand	Qf Hungary on the
1626 The Valteline restored to the Grisons by the treaty of Monjon.
1628 The Spaniards in the Mantuan war of succession again occupy the Valteline, till 1631.
1635 Occupation of the Valteline by the French, under the duke de Rohan, till 1637.
1689 “ Capitulation of Milan” between the Grisons & Spain.
Germany.
Bohemia. Hungary & Thansylvania.
Rudolph II., Emperor, and king of Bohemia and Hungary.
r Hungary Turkish.
The “ Fraternal Contestthe archduke Mathias endeavours to compel Rudolph to abdicate, and wrests from him Hungary, 1608, and Bohemia, 1611.
Religious disputes: allayed for a time by the edict of 1609, called the “ Letters of Majesty” allowing free exercise of the Protestant religion.
SlOISMOND BATHORI, -1602,
prince of Transylvania. 1602 Tyranny of the Austrian general, George Basta — the Transylvanians revolt, and elect, under the protection of the
Stephen Boczkai, 1604—7.
1605 General revolt.
1606 Truce of Comorrafor twenty years with the Porte—« Pacification of Vienna” with the Hungarian malecontents, recog-
Protestant Union under Frederick,	11—^---------------1
the elector-palatine,
(son-in-law of James I. of England), opposed by
1610 The Catholic league under the duke of Bavaria : the germs of the Thirty Years’ War—dis-
Suted succession to the duchies of Cleves and uliers, 1609, sets the two parties in array, but the storm is delayed for some time.
nises Boczkai in Transylvania, and concedes religious liberty, 1606. Boczkai dies the next year.
elected prince of Transylvania by the diet of Clausembourg.
Gabriel Bathori, 160S—13.
Mathias, brother, succeeds as Emperor, 1612—previously crowned king of Bohemia, 1611, and of Hungary, 1608-19.
1615 The truce of Comorra with the Porte COn- The " Edict of Tolera- The capitulation provides: 1. No firmed and defined.	K.7!!? w.a“ew by ?rtiE" ,rooP5 ,n ,he kingdom;
Mathias at bis corona- 2. No peace or war without the tlon-	diet; 3. Restoration of the dignity
of Palatine; 4. Full toleration, ,, for Protestants; 3. Expulsion
Denmark.
The Protestant princes murmur at the post-office 1017 Mathias ab- eiC(Iorrro being subjected to general regulations throughout ^Tcr^dtt °r,eiUl"' mm Bathori the Empire—a proof of the exasperation of party, Prague: sweare and of the little regard paid to imperial authority. ^ Mqjesty^”
1618 Insurrection at
duchy of Prussia.
The Thirty Tears’ War, 16X8-48.
deposed by the diet, . .-j	.	...
and Frederick, elector- abdication of Mathias— palatine,declared king Forced to ratify and even strengthen of Bohemia, 1610. the former capitulation.
1619 Alliance of the Bohemian revolters, under count Thurn, with Bethlem Gabor, and the Hungarians : who invade Austria and threaten Vienna.
Ferdinand II., archduke of Gratz: first cousin—Emperor, 1619—king of Bohemia, 1617______________
and of Hungary, 1618—1637.
1620 Victory of the White Mountain, near Prague, over the Bohe- 1620 General revolt of the mians—the elector-palatine flees, and is put to the ban (1621)— Hungarian Protestants— massacre of Prague: the Protestant religion totally sup- Bethlem Gabor electedking.
1822 The Imperialists, under Tilly, defeated by Mansfeld at Wis- pressed, and all
loch—bot victorious at Wimpfen, and at Hochot—total subjnea- the privileges of 1622 Peace between Beth-IraSsS’to b“" HafiS? “d Spinola_tl,e elec,oral dign,,y the kingdom abo- lem Gabor and the Empe->r Saxony the seat of war tiU 1630—Denmark Joins the ^s^ed — horrible ror. but not of long dura-its.	persecution of the tion — second peace at
1626 Victory of Tilly over Christian IV. of Den- malecontents — Vienna, 1624— mark at Lutter.	80,000 protest- T.he ““P!™ ,«*«!*• ,h*nSi1'.
’ „ X. , duchies of Ratisbon and Oppelen,
1628	Wallenstein recovers all the shores of the ant families ba- 0n condition of Bethlem Gabor
Baltic, except Stralsund : is invested with the mshed-	abandoning the title of king,
forfeited duchy of Mecklenburg.	1627 Ferdinand III., son, crowned king of
1628—31 Mantuan war of succession in Italy, (see Italy.)	Bohemia, in his father s life-time — and of
1629	Edict of Restitution: reclaiming all church lands occupied Hungary, 1625—signs the same Capitulatioi
by Protestants since 1565, in opposition to *he Reservation . - - ^ ■	°	r
as his father.
by Protestants Ecclesiasticum.
Peace of Lubeck—restoration of the territories The right of elec- 1625 War with Bethlem
tion and the “ Letters of Majesty” forcibly abrogated.
Gabor till 1627.
Georoe Racoczi, 1631-48,
son of Siglsmond— prince of Transylvania, under the protection of the Porte.
conquered by Wallenstein.
1630 Sweden joins the Protestant confederacy:
Gustavus Adolphus lands in Germany.
Diet of Ratisbon: Wallenstein dismissed from the command, and succeeded by Tilly.
1681 Subsidiary treaty of Barenwalde between France and Sweden—
Sack of Magdeburg by Tilly: Gustavus Adolphus victorious at Brei-tenfeld, takes Mayence—The Saxons subdue Bohemia.
1632	Defeat and death of Tilly at Lech—Gustavus takes Munich—
Wallenstein again generalissimo—Battle of Lutzen, Nov. 6, victory and death of Gustavus Adolphus.
1633	Treaty of Heilbronn between Sweden and the four circles;
Saxony not acceding.
1634	Murder of Wallenstein—Ferdinand, king of Hungary, defeats the Swedes at Nordlingen.
1633 France aUaeks the Emperor—peace of Vragne with Saxony, ceding to her Lusatla 1037 intrigues qf the Jesuits and the conSscated church lands.	caw a general revolt qf the Pro-
1636 Swedish preponderance restored by the victory of Wittstock.
The Imperialists Invade France and threaten Paris.
Ferdinand III., son, 1637-57—already king of Bohemia and Hungary.
1687 Galas successful against the Swedes, who retreat into Pomerania. 1648 Racoczi declares him-
1638 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar defeats the Imperialists at Rheinfeld ; self independent oj both the takes Brisach.	Porte and the Emperor, and
1689 Death of Bernh^d-Victories of Olote and Btaodeia gained by
the Swedish general Banner-he dies, 1641.	thcmcU-
1641	Preliminaries of peace opened at Hamburg.	contents—the Emperor
1642	Torstensohn routs the Austrians at Leipsic—invades Holstein, forced to make peace, and
and compels the Danes to desert Austria, 1643—routs the Austrians to concede the aemands of in Bohemia, 1645.	the Protestants, 1645.
1645	Negotiations for peace at Munster and Ferdinand IV.,
Osnaburg.	son, 1646-54.
1646	Wrangel succeeds Torstensohn—invades Ba-	. j ___________\
varia, and compels the Elector to the armistice of 1647 Praguetaken ,.f	,
Ulm, 1647—on its breach, defeats the Austrians by the Swedes
and Bavarians at Zummerhausen, and devastates under Bavaria, 1648.	Konigsmark.
Ferdinand IV., son, 1647-54,
of Westphalia, the basis of all subsequent treaties i signed at Munster.
From this time originates the system of “ the balance of power.”
The free exercise of all forms of Protestantism secured—the church lands fixed as in 1624, the Reservatum Ecclesiasticum being ratified 1648 The Swiss for the future. Alsace ceded to France—Pomerania, Wismar, etc., republic recog- to Sweden, with rights as a state of the Empire. The Palatine made nised at the the eighth elector; Magdeburg, etc., ceded to Brandenburg. The peace of West- Swiss and Dutch republics recognised, and declared independent of phalia.	the Empire—and the free right of trade, navigation, and colonisation,
in the East and West Indies, secured to the Dutch by a separate treaty with Spain.
Ceoroe Racoczi II.,
Christian IV. —1648.
1606 Visits his sister, Anne, queen of Eng. land, in London.
1609 Copenhagen forliaed.
1611 War with Sweden: Calmar and Risby taken by the Danes.
1618 Peace of Siorod.
Many cities built.
1613 First standing army, 5000 men: augmentation of the navy, and enrolment of a corps of seamen.
University of
1618 A fleet sent out to India, settlement of Tranauebar in Coromandel.
Copenhagen
1620 Incorporation of the Greenland and Iceland Company.
enlarged.
Manufactures increase.
1625	Christian heads the league for the restoration of the elec-tor-palatine in Bohemia.
Northern fisheries protected,
1626	Defeated at Lutter.
and voyages of discovery fitted out.
1627	The Danes defeated by Wallenstein, lose all Holstein and Sleswick, except the fortresses of Gluck-stadt and Krempen.
1629 Peace of Lubeck— The Imperialists restore their conquests, on Denmark withdrawing from the Protestant league.
1637 The counts Ulfeld and Sehested, married to two natural daughters of the king, exercise predominant influence.
1643	Alliance with the Emperor, and war with Sweden: disapproved by the diet: and unfortunate for Denmaik.
1644	Torstensohn overruns Holstein and Jutland ; Horn subdues the Danish provinces in the south of Sweden.
1645	Peace of Brbm-sebro under the mediation of France: Denmark cedes Oesel, Gothland, Halland, Jemtaland, Heijeda-len, etc., and the free navigation of the Sound and the Belts.
Frederick III., son, 1648-70.
His election opposed by his brothers-in-law, who succeed in extorting a capitulation, reducing the royal power almost to nothing.
b
C
d
f
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
37
OTTOMAN EMPIRE BEGINS TO DECLINE. POWER OF THE GREAT MOGUL AT ITS HEIGHT.
Ottoman Empire.
Persia.
J
India.
China.
America.
I GOO
Mohammed III. —1609. 1601 War with Persia till 1618.
The pashas appointed by the Porte supplanted about this time In the African regencies by deys chosen by the troops.
Abbas (the Great). —1627.
1601 War with the Porte ; 12,000 musketeers, the first regular troops, organized by the English traveller ~
by the Shirley.
Ahhmed I., son, 1603-17.
1603 Recovery of Tabreez : of Erivan, 1604 : great defeats of the Turks in Anatolia, 1605. Disastrous
1605	Great revolt in Syria and Caramania under the pasha of Aleppo.
Bostkai of Transylvania in alliance with the Porte.
wars
1606	Truce of Comorra for 20 ears with the Empire: the ^orte retains the frontier towns of Raab, Gran, etc.
Commercial treaty with France and Holland.
Tobacco first brought to Turkey.
with Persia, which consume the strength of the Empire, and prevent Mustapha I., brother, 1617-8.
Deposed for imbecility after three months.
its
08MAN II.,
son of Achmet, 1618-22.
Jelaleddin Akbar, —1605.
The Mogul dominion now at its height of power and wealth, though not of territory, the Dekkin being still independent.
The possessions and trade of Spain and Portugal in the Eaet are tom from them by their diligent and enterprising rivals the Dutch. Their East India Company is founded 1602, and proves a very prosperous monopoly.
Jehangib, son, 1605-27.
1606 Revolt of his son Khosroo suppressed. 1606 Acquisition of Laristan in the west, and Kandahar on the east frontier, from the Moguls.
Great improvements in the internal state of the country: roads, causeways, bridges, etc.
Armenian manufacturers
settled at Julfa.
1613 English factory at Gombroon.
tro della ’ersla, It
The power
Alliances with the European powers in India.
of Persia
interfering
1618 Great Persian victory over the Turks and Tartars at Shibli—peace—the Turks cede Georgia, Erivan, and Tabreez.
oarrled to
1621	Abbas puts to death his eldest son Soofi, and blinds his second son.
a hiffh pitch
1622	Ormus taken from the Portuguese by the assistance of the English.
by Abbas the Great,
in the
1620 War with Poland in Moldavia: and unsuccessful invasion of Poland—peace, 1622, the Poles retire from Moldavia, and cede Choczim.
intestine disputes
Revolts in many of the provinces.
of Hungary.
1622 War renewed with Persia.
The sultan strangled in a revolt of the Janizaries — Mustapha restored five months, then strangled.
Murad IV., 1623-40, sumamed Ghazi, bro. of Osman,
A warlike prince—restores tranquillity, and punishes the revolted pashas.
1625 Victory over the Turks : conquest of Bagdad, ,, Mosul, etc.
1625 Truce with the Empire renewed—the Persian war prevents the Porte from entering Germany during the Thirty Years’ War.
1628 Great slaughter of Janizaries in punishment of a revolt.
Revolts and troubles among the Crim-Tartars, and Cossacks, and among the Druses in Syria.
1634 Murad in person invades Persia, and takes Tabreez.
Sam Mihza, or Shah Soofi I. 1627-41,
grandson, son of Soofi. rapidly
The king, a drunken tyrant, putt to death and blinds many <f the nobles, and most of the royal family.
The Janizaries
1636 Peace with Poland renewed, begin to decline.
Troubles on the Tartar frontier :
Azoph taken by the Cossacks,
1637.
1637 Bagdad taken by the Turks : peace, 1639.
Ail Abbas’s conquests given np, and the frontiers re-established as in the reign of Sollman the Magnificent, by the peace of 1335.
Ibrahim, brother, 1640-48.
Unwarlike rulers,
1642 Recapture of Azoph from the Cossacks.
who revel in effeminate
1645 Truce with the Empire again prolonged.
War with Venice till 1669—
Candia the theatre of war.
and luxurious enjoyments,
1648 The sultan deposed and strangled for immorality, by command of the Mufti.
and leave the government
Mohammed IV., 1648-87, son, four years old.
to the cure of grand viziers.
Kandahar recovered from Persia.
1609 Arrival of Hawkins, the first English envoy from the Hast India Company.
All the affairs of the Empire disposed of by
the sultana, Noor-Mahal, and her
brother, the vizier Azif.
1611	The Afghans invade Cabul, but are repulsed.
1612	English factory at Surat.
1615	Revolt of the Coolies in Guzerat, suppressed with great slaughter.
1616	Sir Thomas Hoe, ambassador from les 1. of England.
Khosroo murdered by his elder brother Khurrem, afterwards Shahjehan.
1617	War with Rana Sinka of Udayapur.
The Dutch Bast India trade In Its follest power and glory,
Shahjehan, after reducing great part of the Dekkin to pay tribute, revolts against hisfather, but is reduced by Mohabet Khan. the Company extending Its possessions on every side,
626 War renewed in the Dekkin, on the death of Malek Umber.
Imbecility of Jehangir—upon his death, Mohabet and the vizier Azif agree in placing on the throne his younger son.
particularly among the Islands.
Shahjehan, son, 1627-58,
massacres all his male relatives of the house of Timur.
1629 The Usbeks attack Kandahar and Cabul, but are signally repulsed.
Revolt of Lodi Khan, who engages the princes of the Dekkin in rebellion: suppressed by Mohabet, 1630.
Peace for several years: improvements of the empire by roads and buildings: the Jumma Mus-jeed and the Taj-Mahal built: the new city of Delhi, or Shah-jehanpoor, founded.
The civil troubles of the English prevent their energies from having full play in this quarter at present; but a rivalry is already growing up
1637-9 Revolt and sub-	tbem “,ld the
jugation of the nya of Dut'h> whom tbeH *oon Bundelcund.	outstrip tn every thing
connected with ships, colonies, and commerce. Madras and Fort St. George the only settlements at this time of the
Wars in the Dekkin re- En&l,sh in the Carnatic' newed, 1640-55.
1040 Fort St. George, or Madras, founded by the Engllab.
The dynasty called Ming, which had ruled since the expulsion of the race of Zingis in 1368, attacked by the Mantchow Tartars in 1616, who succeed, in 1647, in placing a prince of their own nation, (the now reigning family,) on the throne.
Abbas II., son, 1641-66.
1642 The Usbek princes of Balkh take refuge in Persia
Usbek princes ot balkh take reiugt from the intrigues of Shahjehan.
Period of tranquillity follows the Turkish wars: commerce and arts flourishing: many Europeans resort to Persia.
Jealousies arise among the four sons of Shahjehan; Dora Sheko, Shah Sujah, Murad Buksh, and Aureng Zeb.
The foundations of the Mahratta power laid by Sevajee on the
frontiers of the Dekkin.
1648 Kandahar finally annexed to Persia.
The dynasty of Tsing, or the Mantchow, reckoned the twentieth successive dynasty by the Chinese, began in the person of Chun-Chi, 1647-61.
The
followers of the
Grand Lama become the dominant sect
in China.
1602 Portuguese colonies attacked by the Dutch.
1604 Acadia, or New Brunswick, colonised by France.
1606	Discovery of Hudson’s Bay.
First royal charters for the colonies of Virginia and New England, the first to the London, the second to the Plymouth Company.
1607	Jamestown founded in Chesapeake Bay— The first permanent English settlement.
1608	Quebec founded : in 1622 it contained only forty inhabitants.
1609	The Spanish colonies weakened by the diminished exports consequent on the exhaustion of the mother country.
Commencement of the Jesuit missions in Paraguay.
The Englith North American Colonies make rapid etridei during thie period. The troubles in England, and the persecution of the Puritans and Independents, drive large bodies across the Atlantic, where the maxims <tf freedom and equality which they introduce, take deep root and bring forth glorious fruit. Of the colonies they found, Virginia is the most flourishing, but their efforts are much cramped by the restrictions of the Company.
The colonists, bringing with them a taste for free government, convene, 1610, a General Assembly, and form a constitution upon the English model. A dispute arises between the King and Company, which he abolishes 1624.
1612 Commencement of “ buccaneering” from the Dutch and Portuguese wars.
Occupation of Bermuda by the English Company.
1616 The tobacco plant first brought into Virginia.
1618 The Maranon explored, and the city of Belem in Gram Para founded.
1620	Negro slaves first imported to Virginia. Emigration of Puritans to Hew England.
indlng of the Pilgrims at Plymouth—John Carver first overnor.
1621-4 Brazil overrun by the Dutch—who defeat the Spanish fieet on the west coast, and sack Lima, 1624.
1621	Dutch West India Company incorporated.
1624	Virginia dependent on the English crown— Foundation of Manhattan, or New Amsterdam, (now New York) by the Dutch.
1625	The English settle BaTbadoes and St. Kitt’s—Nevis, 1628—Bahamas, 1629—Antigua and Montserrat, 1632.
1627	Boston founded.
English Newfoundland fisheries begin to prosper.
1628	Massachusetts Bay state first colonised. Capture of the Spanish treasure fleet off Havan-
nah by the Dutch.
1629	New Hampshire granted to J. Mason— Wonter Van Twiller governor of New Amsterdam.
690 Carolina granted to Sir Robt. Heath— Connecticut to Lords Say and Brook 1631— Maryland to Lord Baltimore, 1632.
1630	Settlement of the Buccaneers in Tortuga about this time.
The Dutch almost sole masters of Brazil.
1632 Maryland settled by a catholic colony under Lord Baltimore.
Isle of St. Eustatia settled by the Dutch— Curasao, 1634.
1635 Connecticut first settled—Guadeloupe and Martinique settled by the French.
1637 Maine and New Hampshire colonised from Connecticut.
Harvard college founded.
First printing office in America at Cambridge by Sam. Green.
1640	English in Surinam—Portuguese, 1648.
1641	The sugar-cane introduced into Barbadoes from Brazil.
1643 French colony in Cayenne.
Confederation of the colonies of New England for mutual defence— Cambridge Platform adopted, 1648.	'
Whole number of emigrants to New England np to tbia time 21,000.
Thomas Mayhew preaches to the Indians.
1647 Peter Stuyvesant governor of New Amsterdam.
1649	J. Winthropp governor of Connecticut.
1650	First settlement of N. Carolina, about Albermarle Sound.
1610
1620
1630
1640
1650
b
d
e
38
Table xv.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Seventeenth
COMMONWEALTH—RESTORATION-GLORIOUS REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND.
1650
Great Britain.
Constitutional History,
Military government may be now considered as established:—by military force, with the approbation of an inconceivably small portion of the people, the king had been beheaded, the ancient laws of the country overthrown, and supreme authority placed in the hands of a mutilated House of Commons, rarely mustering more than seventy or eighty members, who appointed the council of state, and to all offices, most of which they shared among themselves.
The fundamental charter of the English commonwealth under the Protector, was “ The instrument of government,” drawn up by the council of officers, 1653, and approved by parliament. The power of the Protector is increased,
1657,	when he has conferred upon him all the privileges of monarchy but its name—the crown is offered him, and refused.
1654 New parliament: 400 for England, 30 each for Scotland and Ireland ; electoral qualification in counties, £200, in freehold or moveable property—dissolved without passing a single Act.
1656* New parliament, 100 obnoxious members excluded—1657 Cromwell summons a House of Lords— great majority against him in the Commons, dissolved
1658.
The military government of Cromwell—his rigorous measures—his arbitrary tax of 10 per cent on all who had sided with the king—the capital executions of bis high court of Justice, without trial, cause a general discontent, and a burning desire for the ancient monarchy. All that had been gained by civil war was—
a more seoere despotism than Charles had eoer attempted.
The Commonwealth.
Government administered by a Council of State, supported by an army of 30,000 veterans under the command of Cromwell.
1649 The royalists in Ireland reduced by Cromwell.
The Scots proclaim Charles II.—Montrose taken and hanged, 1650—Charles lands in Scotland ; all power in the hands of the Covenanters—Victory of Cromwell over the Scots at Dunbar—Charles enters England, 1651—defeated at Worcester by Cromwell—escapes to France—the royal party is everywhere suppressed—everything in the hands of the army.
The Navigation Act: restricting imports in foreign vessels—aimed against the Dutch trade—the first appearance of the prohibitory system in commerce.
1652-4 Naval war with Holland:
Blake, Ascough, and Penn, English admirals; Tromp, Ruyter, and dc Witt, Dutch: continual sea-fights in the Channel.
1653 The Long Parliament forcibly dissolved by Cromwell—“ Barebone's Parliament” summoned—resigns its power into the hands of Cromwell.
Oliver Cromwell lord Protector of the three Klngdomi, 1653-8.
Naval victory over the Dutch—Peace of Westminster, 1654, and alliance with Arbitrary but vigorous government of Holland : the honour of the flag conceded to England.
1655 Royalist conspiracy crushed—England	Flve million acres confiscated
1670
1680
During the reign of Charles II. the fundamental privileges of the subject were less invaded, and the prerogative swerved into fewer excesses than perhaps in any former reign of equal length. Frequent sessions of parliaments prevented illegal taxation: the attempts to revive the Star-chamber and High Commission courts failed, so that no means remained by which to punish political offenders except the regular law tribunals; certainly not as yet sufficiently untrammeled to leave the subject full protection, but, from their very publicity alone, beyond comparison superior to the dark and secret courts of James andCharlesI.
The great shackles upon liberty and law were: 1. restrictions upon the press; 2. illegal proclamations, though few in number; 3. fining of Juries for their verdicts. On the other band the Commons kept a sharp and vigilant eye upon every stretch of arbitrary prerogative in the crown—vote that the Lords should not alter money bills; successfully oppose their attempts to exempt themselves from an equal submission to the law, as shown in their amendments to the bills for regulating the press, 1661, and to prevent infection from the plague, 1663; and defeat their design to establish their right to an original Jurisdiction in civil suits, though they make good their claim to hear appeals from the court of equity. [Cases of Skinner and the East India Company, 1668— Shirley and Fagg, 1675.]
Habeas Corpus Aet passed, 1679-It had been passed by the Commons in 1660, 70, 73,74, 75, 76, and rejected by the Lords.
The great objects which Charles and James II. had at heart, were the re-establishment of popery and absolute power; and although they might not perhaps have set aside the use of parliaments altogether, if they could by corruption or force have rendered them subservient to their own wills, they evidently disliked them, and would have got rid of them by any means that offered.
In 1685 the crown was nearly absolute: for so submissive and corrupt was parliament now become, that had not James alarmed the high church party by a too early betrayal of his intention to give place and power only to Catholics, he might have repealed the Habeas Corpus and Test acts, and rendered the monarchy despotic. In 1686, upon the reluctance of the Commons to come into his measures, he showed very plainly, that with a bench of judges to pronounce his commands, and an army to enforce them, he would not suffer constitutional restrictions to stand in his way.
seals the destiny of the Stuarts; for what chance was there for liberty with an hereditary line of kings, possessing a power, acknowledged by law, of setting aside Acts of parliament ?
1690
1700
The Declaration of Rights: recites the illegal and arbitrary acts of the late king, the consequent vote of abdication, and settles the throne on the prince and princess of Orange. It further declared, that it is Illegal for the crown without consent of parliament to suspend the execution of laws or to dispense with them, to create commissions for ecclesiastical or other causes, to levy money, or to maintain a standing army in limes of peace ; that it is the right of the subjects to petition, to bear arms; elections to be free; freedom of speech in parliament, and that parliaments should be held frequently. It was confirmed by the Bill gf Rights, which also limited the succession of the crown to Protestants.
The Greht Revolution, borrowing nothing from the heroism or motives of those who brought it to pass, derives all its splendour from the great principle on which it rests, that the public good is the great end of government. It breathed a new life into the constitution, not so much by any alteration of its fundamental maxims, as by the spirit and feelings which henceforward prevailed among the people. Absolute power, passive obedience, and hereditary right, were destroyed. The struggle between the crown and the people—between despotism and liberty— which had continued from the days of John downward, almost always to the advantage of the monarch, now ended by the triumph of parliament and the people. A sovereign was virtually declared to have forfeited his right to the nations allegiance. The crown, which had hitherto predominated in the mixed government of England, was abased, and the aristocracy (including landed proprietors and the clergy) has since possessed the greatest power, and might have become unbearable but for the gradual extension of the blessings of civil and religious liberty, to the rest of the community.
Constitutional improvements under William III.: Corporations restored—appropriation of supplies—parliamentary interference and inquiries more frequent and regular—triennial parliaments, 1604—law of high treason amended—liberty of the press—religious toleration to all, except Papists and such as deny the Trinity.
divided'into twelve mUittqr |0.emn»i SM.S'SeS,0"1 ““ 1655-60 War with Spain : Jamaica conquered by Penn; Plate fleets taken by Blake at Cadiz and Santa Cruz.
Cromwell: he is looked up to as the support of the Protestants abroad; and his alliance is courted by the powerful monarchies of France and Spain.
1658 Discontent and conspiracies—the Millenarians, Fifth-Monarchy Men, and other fanatics.—Death of Cromwell, Sept. 3rd.
Richard Cromwell, son, succeeds as Protector, 1658-9.
Cabal of Wallingford house among the officers, 1659—the Protector resigns.
1659	The Rump parliament re-assembled, but soon expelled by the army—Committee of Safety—the nation refuses to pay taxes—apprehensions of anarchy.
1660	Gen. Monk, governor of Scotland, marches to London, calls “ the Convention parliament”—king restored by acclamation.
Episcopacy re-established in the three kingdoms. The Church has its lands restored —the clergy their benefices—the bishops again ward- take their seats in parliament. The Presbyterians, who had assisted in the restoration, hope great things from the king, but are deceived—in bis declaration from Breda he had
Sromised liberty of conscience, but : was never granted.
Corporation Act against Dissen-
Bestoratton of tbe Stuarts.
Charles II., 1660-85.
General amnesty and indemnity, except to the late king’s Judges—Revenue fixed at £1,200,000 per annum-ship and purveyance” commuted fur £100,000 a-year—The army disbanded, except 1000 horse and 4000 root (tne first royal standing army)—Hyde, earl of Clarendon, lord chancellor and prime minister, 1660-67. The “ Convention parliament” dissolved, Dec. 1060.
1661 New parliament—139 peers summoned.
1661 Alliance with Portugal—1662 the king marries Catharine of Portugal.
Dunkirk sold to France for £400,000, to pay tbe king's debts, ters, 1661.
1664-7 War with Holland, from commercial jealousy.
1665 Naval victory gained by the duke of York— Great plague of London: 100,000 deaths— fellow ofa coUege, and schoolmaster, 1666_Sea;flght for four days: doubtftd victory of	nar|iamJnt KefH a, nvf«,ri	«» ™de declare hi» deigned
the English—-1667 the Dutch enter the Thames ^e parliament held at Oxford, 1665. by surprise, and burn the shipping—	Great fire of London: 13,000 houses destroyed
Clar—dm’t dttli—	IM7—flight.
nation—2000 ministers are conse-
lgn<
assent and consent to everything contained In the Book of Common
quently ejected from their livings.
1664 Act for suppressing conventicles ; by which persons attending any place of worship but the Church, are subject to imprisonment and transportation. 1665 All persons in holy orders called upon to swear “ that it is not lawful upon any pretence whatsoever to take up arms against the king.”
Peace of Breda: New-York ceded to England.	and consequent'bani8hment.
The Triple League between England, Holland, and Sweden, against France.
1670 The Cabal Ministry (Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, Lauderdale) introduce councils tending to absolutism and popery.
'ecret alliance with France—for rendering Charles despotic, establishing popery in England, for the conquest and partition of Holland, 4c. and the overthrow of the liberties of Europe.
Lauderdale makes the royal authority absolute in Scotland.
Religious persecution, enormous taxation, the shocking depravity of the court, Ifc., give rise to discontent, and increase the power of the opposition in parliament.
1672	War with Holland, in conjunction with France.	Severities against the Scottish
1673	Fall of the Cabal—Ministry of Danby, to 1678—Extensive corruption of parliament. Presbyterians.
1674	Peace with Holland :
Conquests mutually restored: tbe Dutch pay £300,000, and yield the honour of the flag : new regulations of trade —the king continues in secret correspondence with France, whence be receives a degrading pension of 1,000,000 livrcs, afterwards increased to 2,000,000.
Disputes on tbe doctrines of Passive Obedience and non-resistance.
1677	Parliament addresses the king to form an alliance with Holland—he refuses.
Rise of the names of Whigs and Tor ies—the king, fearful of offending parliament by supporting
France, or of losing his pension by declaring in favour of Holland wavers, and becomes universally distrusted by the nation.
Marriage of the prince of Orange to the princess Mary of York,
1678	Peace of Nimeguen: 1579 Dissolution of parliament upon the impeachment of one? to quit the post of Lord Ad-
discontent in England at the	the earl of Danby, after sitting 17 years—New parliament, rairal-
advantages conceded to France.	1679 : bill of Exclusion against the duke of York : Habeas
Corpus Act: second impeachment of Danby and five Catholic	Co'enuiten!'
peers; dissolved—New parliament, 1680: Exclusion bill ’--J..........
rejected by the Peers: unjust condemnation and execution of Stufford; violence of the Commons; dissolved—New parliament at Oxford, 1681: recommence the Exclusion bill and impeachment of Danby; again dissolved—
Ho parliament for four yean.
1672	Declaration of Indulgence by the king—opposed by parliament, as a stretch of prerogative— withrawn 1673.
1673	Test Act: renders the reception of the sacrament according to the rites of the Church of England, and a declaration renouncing the doctrines of transnb-stantiation, necessary to all holding office. It is levelled chiefly against Catholics, and compels the duke of York, who had avowed ”
Murder of Sir Edmondsbury Godfrey.
1679 Outcry against the duke of York, who retires to Brussels—
Fresh executions for the Popish plot.
The Meal-tub plot.
1681 Trial and acquittal of Shaftesbury high treason.
Power of the orown nearly absolute.
1683 London and other corporations deprived of their charters to influence elections. Ryehouse plot, 1683, headed by Monmouth, for setting aside the duke of York’s succession-execution of Lord Russel and Algernon Sydney.
1678 Fresh severities against the cotch Covenanters: 8000 Highlanders quartered on the western counties: “ the Highland Host”— murder of archbishop Sharpe, 1679 —revolt of tbe Covenanters—suppressed by the battle of Bothwell-bridge.
Presbyterians and Dissenters everywhere persecuted.
James, in order to favour popery, declares for liberty of conscience, in hopes of enlisting the Dissenters in his quarrel against the high
James II., brother, 1685-8,
succeeds without opposition, and promises to maintain the constitution in church and state.
1685	Caryl sent to Rome.—Parliament: a life revenue settled on the king.—Rebellion of the ihurch pa^1?,*which*"violently11^
duke of Monmouth in England, and Argyle in Scotland: both defeated and executed.	poses every concession and attempt
Bloody assizes of Jeffreys: 97 persons executed, and 855 transported.	** conc'l*al*on.
1686	Court of Ecclesiastical Commission.	Penal laws against Catholics suspended.
Increasing discontent and alarm of the nation—1688 Triaf and acquittal of the seven bishops for petitioning the king against the
Declaration of Indulgence.—Birth of the prince of Wales—the Protestants apply to the prince of Orange, who lands in England with 15,000 men—the king flees to France.
The throne declared vacant in England and Scotland, but James still acknowledged in Ireland. Revolution—Willi am III. and Mary II., daughter of James II., 1689-1702.
War with France.
Declaration of Bights.
Abolition of Episcopacy in Scotland.
Toleration extended to alt, take the oath of allegiance, and subscribe the declaration against popery.
An attempt to enlarge the basis of the Church by an act of--------
Schism of the non-jurors.
The king’s desire for toleration and to screen the Catholics, is turned into a reproach against him by the lories and high churchmen.
1689 Civil war in Scotland : victory of the Jacobites at Killykrankie—James lands in Ireland and is universally acknowledged; Catholic parliament in Dublin—siege of Londonderry.
1690-1 War in Ireland: William in Ireland: Battle of the Boyne, July 1; James defeated,
and returns to France: unsuccessful siege of Limerick : William returns to England.	uie VI1U1CI1 uy an aci OJ com.
1691 Irish army defeated at Aughrim : Limerick taken, and the whole kingdom submits; prehension falls to the ground Treaty of Limerick, guaranteeing civil and religious liberty to the Irish Catholics: 12,000 ch?rchVcht?onb'g°,ry °f ,he b'gb nevertheiess emigrate.
1692	Insurrection concerted in favour of James, who prepares to invade England from Normandy:
Naval victory of La Hogue by the Dutch and English (admiral Russel) over the French.
Loans raised by government (the germ of the National Debt) for maintaining foreign relations.
The corruption of parliament by court favour, and the influence of the monied interest, give rise to great discontent.
1693	Incorporation of tbe Bank of England—Stamp Acts.
1694	Death of queen Mary, followed by conspiracies against the life of William, by Sir G. Barclay, etc.—supp. and punished.
1695 Improvement of the coinage; disputes as to the standard—First w'.ndow tax.
1696	Illegal execution of Sir John F.nwick by a bill of attainder.
1697	Peace of Byswlok, rendered necessary by the financial embarrassment of all parties [see France.]
1698	The king compelled by parliament to disband tbe Dutch guards, and all the troops, except 10,000 land forces and 3000 marines : Civil list £700,000. Disputes on the charter of the East India Company ; a secoud Company incorporated 1608.
England joins the first Partition Treaty (see Spain.)
1700 Death of the duke of Gloucester, only surviving child of the princess Anne, and heir presumptive to the crown:—The succession limited by parliament to Sophia, electress-dowager of Hanover (grand-daughter of James I.) and her heirs, being Protestants.
b
c
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
39
PREDOMINATING POWER OF FRANCE: LOUIS XIV. AIMS AT UNIVERSAL MONARCHY.
GREAT
Portugal.
Roue of Braganxa.
John IV. —1656.
1654 Recovery of Brar zil from the Dutch.
Alfonso VI., son, 1656-67. paralytic and imbecile -queen-mother regent.
1656 The Portuguese driven from Ceylon by the Dutch.
Spain.
Philip IV. —1665.
Spain (olng fast to ruin by bad
France.
Bouse of Bourbon.
Louis XIV. —1715.
Continuation of the troubles of the Fronde:
1051 Condi, etc., released: Turenne resumes his allegiance: Mazarine with-draws to Cologne: the king declared of age.—1052 Conde Id rebelllou : Maza-rine retires to Sedan : the king enter$ Parie and proclaims an amnesty
Rett sent to Vincennes : Conde flees to Spain.—1053 Mazari ----- " ‘
in triumi1	“
the trout
coastal wars.
The country depopulated.
1652 Barcelona taken by Don John of Austria—Ends the revolt of Car talonia: the Catalonian constitution and privileges destroyed.
War with Spain continues in Catalonia, in the Netherlands, and it Italy, generally in favour of France.
Turenne the principal French commander; Conde oh the Spanish side. England allies with France against Spain.
1055—00 War with England: the plate-fleet I “i™	“■* 17—“ih, 1050—Defeat at sea off
is of Dunkirk.	|
1659 Peace of the Pyrenees:
Spain cedes Artois, Ronssillon, etc.-Marrlage of Louis XIV. to Maria Theresa, Philips daughter by his first wife, 1000, whence the subsequent accession of the
---- -------Spain.—1053 Mazarine returns to Paris
--- capture of Roordeauz, the bead-quarters of the Frondeurs, ends qf the Fronde.
The war with England ends on the restoration of Charles JL, apparently without any formal peace.
1661 Invasion of Portugal, now Spain’s only enemy, by an army under Don John of Austria.
1661-5 Troubles in America (see America.)
Alliance with England: peajee with Holland, by which Portugal recovers Brazil, Diu,
Goa, and Macao.
1663 Victory of the Portuguese under count Schomberg over the Spaniards at Estremos: and another more decisive at VillarVi9osa, 1665.
The queen-mother resigns the regency, and retires to a convent.
M07 devolution at
Usbon i the king deposed for imbecility.
Pbdbo II., 1667-1706, As regent till the death of Alfonso, in 1683— marries his brother’s affianced bride, a princess of Nemours.
The Crown despotic.
1655 Famous declaration of the king,
“ I am the State :” he dictates, as absolute master, to Parliament.
1661	Death of Mazarine — Colbert, Comptroller-General of Finance (prime minister), 1661-83.
With Colbert’s administration commences the era called die Age qf Louis XIV.: his single genius created not only the finances, but the commerce, manufactures, and naval power of France: and on this commercial prosperity was consequent the social refinement, and the literary and scientific eminence, which have made this period considered the Golden Age of France.—Lyonne minister of foreign affairs: Telller minister of war till 10O0: then succeeded by Lonvois.
1662	The court removed to St. Germain, and in 1682 to Versailles—Splendour of the court: introduction of strict and formal etiquette.
1662-4 Disputes with the Pope caused by an insult to the French ambassador: Avignon seized till 1690.
6000 troops sent against the Turks in Hungary.
1664 French East India Company till 1770—and West India Company till 1674:—
Prohibitory tariffs of customs, 1004 and 1007—Colonies of Cayenne, Martinique, Guadaloope, St Lucie, Grenada: Canada made a royal government.
Academle des Sciences founded, 1000.
Canal of Languedoc, from the Mediterranean to the Atlai
Charles II., 1665-1700,
4 years old, son—Anne of Austria, king’s mother, regent till 1675—
Discontent of
The crown settled, in failure of the male line, on Margaret, empress of Germany, younger sister of Maria Theresa; or on Maria Theresa’s issue by a second marriage: in no case to devolve on a French prince.
the nation,
1667-8 War with France : Louis XIV. claims the Spanish Netherlands for his wife, in spite of her renunciation, and invades Belgium with 35,000 men. which sinks to the \
Influence of the Jesuit Nitard, Grand-Iuqolsitor.
lowest wretchedness. I
1668 Peace of Lisbon with Spain, by the	1668 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle: France 1668 Triple League : England,
mediation of England : independence of	acquires Lille, Tournay, and other places Sweden, Holland, against France
Portugal acknowledged: Spain retains	in Flanders.	in the Netherlands.
Ceuta.
1670 Portugal reconciled to the Pope, who had not hitherto acknowledged the House of Braganza.
Long peace : the kingdom begins to recover
from the exhaustion consequent on wars and Spanish domination.
Commerce, 1670 The duke of Lorraine driven from his territories, which
France retains till the peace of Ryswick, 1697.
1071 Foundation of the Academy of Architecture and the Hdtel des Invalides: edict declaring that the privileges of nobility were not forfeited by engaging ’	*
1669 Nitard driven from Spain by Don John of Austria.
1673 War with France for the protection of Holland.
agriculture,
1675 The king assumes the government—Don John of Austria prime minister, 1677 ; dies, 1679: the last great man of the Spanish house of Austria.
and finances
1678-9 Peace of Nimeguen with Holland and Spain:—
Complete restitution between France and Holland: Spain cedes Franche-Comte, and 10 Belgian frontier fortresses; Valenciennes, Cambrai, Ypres, Maubcuge, etc.—France retains Freyburg Ctill 1097) in lieu of Philipsburg (held since 1048).
1672-8 War with Holland—
Invasion by Lonis with 100,000 men : the country overrun : Amsterdam opens the sluices: League qf Brandenburg, Spain, and the Empire to save Holland. —1073 Turenne passes the Rhine and attacks Brandenburg: Peace qf Vossem: but Brandenburg soon renews the war.—1074 The
prince of Orange routed at Sencf: Franche-Comte	Tobacco monopo p vested
subdued: battles of Sinsheitn and Mnlbausen ^	m ™* crown-
ne.—1075 Death of Torenne i
Influence of the Pere la
1070 Conferences for peace opened at Nimeguen,	*
under the mediation of England: but the war	coqjtssor.
meanwhile continues : victory of Monl-Cassel over the prince of Orange, 1077.
1680-5 Duke of Medina-Celi prime minister.
1680 Disputes between Portugal and Spain in South America respecting boundaries.
in ruin:
I0B0 The Jesuits in South America invested by royal ordinance with the political

1687 Second marriage of the king with a hrincess of Neubourg: birth of a male heir 1688, removes the fears of a disputed succession.
France tbe most formidable Fower in Bnrope.
Standing army 140,000 men, besides 00,000 sailors and marines.
1080	*' Chambers of re-union ” at Metz, Brisac, and Besangon, and forcible seizure of districts in Alsace.
1081	Strasburg and Casale, the keys of Upper Germany and Lombardy, seized the same day in the midst of peace.
1082	National conncil of French Bishops: the “ Four Articlee" against the temporal power of tbe Pope.
1082—3 Algiers bombarded by Du Qoesne: and a third time in 1088 by d’Estrees.
J1083 Death qf Colbert.
1683 Invasion of the Spanish Netherlands: hence the defensive treaty of the Hague between Spain,
Holland, Sweden, and the Empire, against French encroachments.
1684 Luxemburg subdued—Genoa bombarded eleven days for her alliance with Spain. Truce of Ratisbon for twenty years with Spain and her allies: Spain cedes Luxemburg: the Empire cedes Strasburg, etc.
Tbe French monarchy at the summit of Its power* but
troops
Italy.
Venice.
Genoa. Tuscany. Sayoy. Republic!.______________________
1053-5-0Three FERDINAND
naval victo-__________
ries over the DE MEDICI, Turks in tbe II., grand-
d«ke.-!6™.
and Darda-1 nelles.
Charles Ehanuel II. -1675.
The Tuscan
1057 The territories con-
aliowedto timu to return to the profound peace Venetian duriag this
territories, after 51 years’ luston.
Warfare of tbe French and Spaniards in Savoy and Piedmont, terminated by the Peace of tbe Pyrenees, 1050.
1000 Candia taken by the Tnrks: Peace with
SSaSCos-oIII.,
cept the har- son,
.“ySSS 1S70-17SS.
1670-3 War between Genoa and Savoy.
1672	Conspiracy of La Torre in Genoa, in favour of Charles Emanuel: discovered and suppressed.
1673	Peace by the mediation of France, Spain, and the Pope.
Victor Amadeus II., son, 1765-1730, in Savoy.
undisciplined 1685 The Conde de Oropesa prime minister : desires to save his country.
and unpaid: and the monarchy on the
1685	Revocation of the Edict of Nantes: 700,000 industrious citizens emigrate to Protestant countries • hence
1686	League of Augsburg negotiated against France by the Stadtholder: the Emperor, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, and other German states.
•n the revocation of the
1696	or 9 Discovery of the gold mines of Minas Geraes in Brazil by the Paulistas.
1697	Last meeting of the Cortes.
Dispute with France, respecting boundaries in America.
lta resources greatly exhausted by the
1688-97 War of Spain, the Empire, Holland, Savoy, and England, against France :
Luxemburg and Catinat commanders by land; Tourvlllc by sea.
The Palatinate horribly devastated with fire and sword by order of Louvois.
1689 The Grand alliance against France, headed by William.
1000 Naval victory of Tonrvillc over the Dutch and English off Dieppe.—/» the Netherlands—Victory of Luxemburg at Fleurus, 1000; at Steenkirke, 1802; and at Neenvinden, 1093. After Luxemburg’s death, 1095, Villerol In command.— In Italy—Victory of Catinat at Stafarda, 1090; and Marsaglia, 1001: Savoy and Piedmont overrun.—In Spain—the war less Important: Barcelona taken, 1097.
1003 Institution of the Order of St. Louis.
continual drain of war.
of Venice with Poland and
the Empire 1880 Persecution of against	the Vauriois or Wal-
the Porte.	denses in Piedmont.
10S5-7 Conqnests of Morosini in the Morea, Negropont, and Dalmatia;
Athens bombarded 1084, to the great injury of the Parthenon, and other antiquities.
verge of
1689 Spain joins the Grand Alliance against France.
! Revolt of Catalonia in favour of France.	....	,
political
dissolution.
Incursion of the French into Aragon, 1691 ; and Catalonia, 1694: Barcelona taken by the due de Vendome,
1090 Peace of Turin with Savoy: Pignerol and all the French conquests restored, for the sake of breaking the confederacy.
1697 General peace Of Byswlokl France restores all her conquests to Holland, Spain, and England: acknowledges William 111.: reinstates the duke of Lorraiue: and retains, of the -German “ re-unions,” only Alsace, with Strasburg and Landau.	Regulation of the Parisian police by D’Argcnson.
Intrigues for the succession, Charles beiug childless: hence
1098 First Partition Treaty: secretly concluded by France, England, and the Empit to the electoral prince of Bavaria, grandson and sole heir of the empress Margaret: archduke Charles, second son of the Emperor, heir male:—rendered nugatory by tbe di
1700 Second Partition Treaty, transferring Spain to the archduke Charles.
Death of the king, who nominates, under the influence of the Pope and cardinal Portocarrero, Philip of Anjou, second grand-• XIV., ------------------
h of the electoral prince, 1
1600 Monem-basia in the Morea surrenders after a year's siege.
1004 Chio taken from the Turks, but recovered by
years after.
1609 Peace qf Cartowits with the Porte :
quires tbe Morea, Egina,
frontier fortresses In . Dalmatia.
1000 The duke of Savoy joins the Grand Alliance against France; is defeated at Stafarda by marshal Catinat; and the French overrun Savoy.
1003 Victor Amadeus utterly routed at Marsaglia by marshal Catinat.
1000 Peace with France: all con-quests restored, and Pignerol given np by France.
Naples & Sicily.
Philip IV. of Spain, —1665.
1654 Unsuccessful attempt of the duke of Guise to excite a fresh revolt in his favour.
1663 Discontent in Sicily from the monopoly of the silk exports given Messina — tumults in Messina on its revocation, and factions of the Merli and Malvezzi.
Charles II., son, 1665-1700.
Sicily divided into
two factions, headed by the cities of Messina and Palermo.
1674 Revolt of Messina in favour of
France----- Louis
XIV. revives the old pretensions, and purposes to make a French prince king of Sicily.
1676 Messina blockaded by the Dutch and Spanish fleets — naval actions — death of the Dutch admiral de Ruyter.
1678 The French compelled to evacuate Sicily — Messina punished and degraded by the Spanish viceroy, San Estevan.
1687 The duke d’Aranda viceroy.
1693 Great earthquakes in Sicily.
[697 First partition treaty — Naples to the Dauphin—confirmed as to Naples by the second treaty in 1700.
TBS
d, 1702, by the Empi .ies of France: Ba
rene—victory of Frid Boufflers: is repulsec es the French out of 1 Stollhafen, Hochsted ;h enters Germany to maintain their superi vain efforts of Franc onqueror—the Frencl fers advantageous ten cessful in Spain—de
the advantage in It
offers liberal terms, \
il conference at Gertr ictive campaign, preli oseph—conferences o ds.
rian succession in Enf right of trading with S
ombardy, Naples, and
Ison, 1715-74. ng’s uncle—Dubois, l
Disorders iuipi bank : made Royal.
Spanish ambassador, < regency to the king o
e Impertr,
aistlppi" scheme bursts—(
, and ruin of public credit
wnce—Peace: revers . to the king, six yeai
snt—duke de Bourboi of cardinal Dubois.
3, Spain, Austria, and irrying Maria Leczinsl league of Be —strict domestic econo -moderate and pacif %n affairs till 1737) narine.
Austria, Spain, and th
final adjustment of diff 1729.
e, and Holland, for jprives the king of Sp h succession. y the bull “ XJnigenitu. enism.
V.,) against Austria ar ine invaded—success
1 Bar ceded by the 1 :d by the reversion of rrendered to Austria, a
: Genoa suppressed I
T B
■ as an auxiliary in the ;lio and Belleisle—Ma
dinal Tencin in powei ction in Britain, but tl annel by a storm. ormally declared agairu ssia against Austria— Charles of Lorraine—i
stresses, particularly ompadour.
by land [see Germany e English:
rcantile and national, t treat on the loss of Ger md victory of Lafeldt c F B A var in which they had : ; side—the Pragmatic i with Britain settled bj
>f France were ruined by tl
b
c
d
e f
38
40
Continuation of Table xv. SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Seventeenth
HOLLAND A FIRST-RATE POWER.
TURKISH WARS IN AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY.
1650 '
Popes & Church History.|
1660
Innocent X. —1655.
1653 Bull against the “five Propositions” of the Jansenists.
1655 Persecution of the Wuldenses.
Alexander VII. (Chigi), 1655-67.
1656 Another bull against the Jan-senist Propositions.
Disputes of the Dope with
1662	first from an insult to the French ambassador—the Pope obliged to supplicate Louis for pardon.
1663	College for Foreign Missions founded at Paris.
1670
1680
1690
1700
The United Provinces.
1665 Persecution of the Jansenists in France: a “ Declaration ” exacted from all candidates for church preferment.
Clement IX. (Rospigliosi), 1667-70.
The fanatical sects of the Cameronians, etc., in Scotland.
1669	Twenty-three French bishops oppose the rigour of the “ Declaration.”
1670	Portugal reconciled to the Pope, and the bishops named by the king confirmed.
Clement X. (Altieri), 1670-76. Suspends the persecution of the Jansenists—this cessation called “ The Peace of Clement.”
1675 The “ Form of Concord” of the Swiss church drawn up at Zurich, by Heidegger, and other divines.
Innocent XI. (Odescalchi), 1676-89.
1S77 Death of the famous atheist, Benedict Spinoza.
The Pope discourages nepotism, and forbids his own nephew, Livio Odescalchi, to reside in the Vatican.
1678 Dispute with France on the Regale, or appropriation of vacant sees to the king.
1681	The system of the Mystics or Quietists founded by Molinos.
1682	Assembly of the French bishops at Paris:
Confirms the Regale, and declares the papal anthority to be merely spiritual. The Tour Propositions, denying the temporal power of the Pope, and asserting the independence of the Gallican church.
1685-8 England reconciled to Rome for a short time by James II.
1683	Public dispute in France between Claude, a Huguenot doctor, and the Catholic divine, BossueL
1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis JCIV., and persecution of the French Protestants and Wuldenses.
1687 Molinos and the Quietists condemned by a papal bull—Fresh disputes with Ixntis XIV., from the Pope suppressing the right of sanctuary in ambassadors’ houses at Rome.
1689 The English church divided, after the expulsion of James II., into two parties, the high and low church; the former holding the doctrines of passive obedience.
Alexander VIII. (Ottoboni), 1689-91.
1690 Louis XIV. restores Avignon, which had been seized in 1663.
Innocent XII. (Pignatelli), 1691-1700.
1693 Reconciliation of the Gallican church with the Pope, but the French bishops still adhere to the Four Propositions.
1697 Controversy of Bossuet and Fenelon on Quietism, which is defended by the latter—his work condemned by the Pope, 1699.
Clement XI. (Albano), 1700-21.
Holland. WlLLfAM II.
The Stadtholdership vacant till 1872: the founts appoint their own magistrates, and the States-general command the navy and army.
rifles to be
1652-4 War with England: ostensible cause, the refusal of the honour of the flag to the English Republic: real cause, commercial rivalry:—sea-fights in the Channel: Blake and Tromp.
Colonise tbe Cape of Good Hope, one of tbe
John deWitt, Grand Pensionary of Holland, 1653-72.
1654 Defeat and death of Tromp: Peace of Westminster with England :
Cromwell exacts, as a condition, the Exclusion of the House of Orange from tbe Stradtholdersbip : consequent discontent of its partisans.
most powerful
1636 Acquisition of Colombo in Ceylon, and Calient in Malabar.
1658 Naval victory under Ondam over the Swedes in the Sound, and relief of Copenhagen, states of Bnrope.
1660 Act (ff Exclusion annulled out of 11658 Dunkirk taken by compliment to Charles II. of England, tbe French and English, on the Restoration.	I & occupied by the latter.
1661,2 The Barbary pirates U®*® Peace of the Py-chastised by the Dutch fleet. |	wft«nc“'
1664-7 War with England:
Causes: commercial jealousy, and Dutch alliance with France: Van Galen, bishop of Muuster, in alliance with England. England for the events of the war.] | 1067 French invasion.
1667	De Ruyter sails up the Thames: Peace of Breda with England.
1668	Triple League with England 1668 Peace of and Sweden, against the aggressions Aix-la-Chupelle ofFranceintheSpanish Netherlands —ceding Lille, Tour-—soon abandoned by England from the n*yi etc. to France, intrigues of the Cabal ministry: hence
1672 War with France and England: sea-fight off Solebay with the English—French invasion—
The country overrun by Turenne and Conde, and reduced to the last extremity—the sluices thrown open—intolerable terms (f peace offered— the people rise in fury, tear the brothers De Witt to pieces, and proclaim as Stadtholder—
1673 French invasion.
William III. 1672-1702.
1653 General revolt of the peasantry in consequence of over taxation.
1655,6 War between the Catholic and Protestant parties.
1663 Renewed alliance with France.
1674 Indecisive battle of Seuett, between Conde and the prince of Orange.
1673 The French driven out of Holland.
1674 Peace of Westminster with England
(see England.)
The Stadtholdership hereditary.
1676	De Ruyter killed in a sea-fight against the French in the Mediterranean.
1677	William completely defeated by marshal Luxemburg at Mont-Cassel—Cambray and St. Omer reduced by the French.
1677 William marries the princess Mary of York, daughter of James II.
1678 Peace of Nimeguen with France, on equitable terms for Holland:
Frenchc ComG and sixteen fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands ceded to France.
1683 Defensive treaty with Spain 11683 Luxem-against France—opposed by the burg seized States-general.	| by France.
1684 Twenty years’ truce with Fiance : Spain cedes Luxemburg.
William head of the anti-French party in Europe.
Switzer-
land.
Most of the states increase in power,
both civil and military.
1663 The Diet permanent at Ratisbon, till 1806—the princes of the Empire represented by their deputies.
1664 The German body a
1665	The Tyrol united to Austria.
1666	Marriage of the Emperor with Margaret Theresa of Spain—hence the subsequent claims on the Spanish succession.
The intercourse with France influences opinions, manners, and the
national character, especially as many French protestant refugees (1685) introduce their manufactures and
industrial
arts.
German Empire. | Bohemia.
Hungary.
Ferdinand III. —1657.	Ferdinand IV. (son of the Emperor), —1654.
Gxorcb Racoczi II. till 1660, in Transylvania.
1653 Saxony at the head of
the Protestant body, called Leopold I. (another son), crowned in Bohemia, 1654 Corpus Lvangehcorum.	and in Hungary, 1655, on the death of Ferdinand. ’
The Imperial government strengthened and consolidated.
Religious liberty firmly secured, though the Catholics still endeavour to injure it.
Formation of standing armies, which continually increase.
Unsuccessful attempts to get the crown declared hereditary in the House of Austria.
1637 Racoczi allies himself with Sweden against Poland, which he invades, but is defeated: deposed.
Leopold I., son, 1657-1705—already king of Bohemia and Hungary.
1658-61 War of the people of Munster against their bishop, Bernard von Galen —they are reduced.
1660 Racoczi falls in battle against the Turks.
Michael Abaffi I., 1661-90, declared prince Transylvania by the Porte — Austria nominates Kemeni: hence
War with the Porte, 1661-4 :
The Turks take Great Wardein, 1661: Nenliaussel, 1062: Kemeni defeated and killed, 1662.
iists the Emperor against the Porte—Victory of Montecuculi over the Turks at St. Gotthard.
troubles,
1664 Truce of Temeswaer for 20 years: Neuhausacl and Great Wardein ceded to the Turks, and Abaffi recognised at independent prince of Transylvania.
and
oppressions;
Hungary severely oppressed,
Jesuits introduced, and the Protestants persecuted: hence
1673	War of Austria and France : the 1670 Conspiracy to throw off the Austrian
Empire joins, 1674 : Cologne, Munster,	headed by the palatine Wesselini,
etc. with France : Rhenish provinces the and others—detected—several beheaded, theatre of war.	v	x A .
1674	Turenne overruns the Palatinate: bat- J”T'y W treated 03 a «m^red country:
ties of Sinsheim, Miilhausen, and En- d'gmty of Palatine abolished: all the sisheijn.	fortresses garrisoned with Germans: arbi-
1675	Turenne and Montecuculi opposed trary taxation: imprisonment and execu-
on the Rhine: death of Turenne at Sas-	li
bach	tion of numerous nobles.
1675 Victory of Consarbruck over the	o1tU and
French under Crequi: Treves taken. 1676-9 General revolt under Emeric, count
1679 Peace of Vlmegnen with Prance.
Friburg in the Brisgau ceded to France—till 1697.
Tekeli, assisted by the French, Poles, and Abaffi of Transylvania : successes of the malecontents,who negotiate with the Porte: hence
1681 Diet of Odenburg for redress of griev-1680 Great pan of Alsace 1680ReroU ; Eslerhasi made Palatine: seized b, France: and Slraa- oftheBohe-	ffiSiKT-
burg occupied ID profound mian peasan- general amneaty offered—terms refused by Tekeli, peace by a French army, try against the who aPPlies <° the Porte.
seigneurs.	Turkish wars.
1682-99 War with the Porte in Hungary: alliance with Poland against the Porte, 1683.
1683 The Empire joins in the Turkish war: invasion of Austria by 200,000 Turks; seige of Vienna: victory of the combined Germans and Poles, under duke Charles of Lorraine, and John Sobieski.	1683 Vjctory of Barkan Qver the Turks
1685 Disputes with -	.	1684 The duke of Lorraine besieges Buda :
France as to the sue- na„ue aeainst takes Neuhaussel 1685 : again besieges and France.	^es ®uda> *686, after having been under
the Porte 145 years.
France as to the succession in the Palatinate.
1685 Protestant refugees
from France in G<r- 1684 Truce for 20 1687 Decisive victory of Mohacz: Croatia many'	years with France, and Transylvania subdued—Abaffi becomes
less Disputes on theelec- on account of the a vassal of Austria.
tion of the aichbisliop-clector of Cologne: cardinal de Furstenberg, the unsuccessful candidate, supported by France: hence
War with France, 1688-97.
pressure of the Turkish war.
1680 Ketfue of Augsburg—Orand Alliance of Holland, Spain, tbe Umpire, and Savoy, against Prance i ratified at Vienna, 1689.
1689 William becomes king of England, which joins the Grand Alliance.
Heinsius Grand Pensionary.
William at the head of the allies in the Netherlands.
William defeated by marshal Luxemburg at Steen-kirk, 1692, and at Neerwinden, 1693.
1687 Diet of Presburg: Joseph I. crowned, and the kingdom forcibly made hereditary —execution of many insurgent nobles at Eperies and Cassovia.
The ancient constitution abrogated.
lia, Servia, and
1688 Belgrade taken: Wallachia overrun.
The Republic becomes too much entangled in the affairs of Europe, which leaves a heavy national debt.
The land forces much improved, and the fleet neglected.
1695 Bombardment of Brussels by the French under Villeroi: 14 churches, and 4000 houses destroyed.
c. t\ I • f u T. 1 •	,	, 1689 Victory of the prince of .Baden at
1688, 9 Desolation of the Palatinate by the Nissa; Bulgaria subdued.
French, through the orders of Louvois—
Worms and Spires burnt, and the tombs	Michael Abaffi II., son, 1690-9.
of the emperors destroyed, 1689.	1690 Nissa, Widdin, Belgrade, Servia, and
Bulgaria, recovered by the Turks under Mustapha Kiuprili—defeated and killed at Salankaman, 1691.
1690 Joseph I. elected king of the Romans by the Electoral Diet of Augsburg.
1692 A ninth Electorate (Hanover) con-T, „	„ , .	.	, TT
ferred on the duke of Brunswick-Lunen- 1695 The sultan MustaPha ,nvades Hun' burg: opposed by the electors as an in- ^ in pereon—1S defeated by pnnee fringement of the treaty of Westphalia, ^u8ene at ^enta, 1696. and not finally ratified till 1708.
1697 Peace of Byewlek, between Pranoe, tbe Bmperor, tbe Bmplre, Ae.
1698 First Spanish Partition Treaty concluded at the Hague. [See Spain.]
1700 Second Spanish Partition Treaty at the Hague.
1698 The internal government organised on the German footing.
1699 Peace Of Carlowltz I the Turks cede .	_	Lower Hungary, Transylvania, Sclavonla, and
1697 Augustus, elector Of Saxony, elected Croatia beyond the Save; retaining only Tenief-king of Poland.	waer, Belgrade, and the Bukowina.
The treaties of Westphalia and Nimeguen renewed France restores Kehl, Brisach, Friburg, and Phi lipsburg, bat retains Strasburg and the Alsace
1699 Abaffi resigns for a pension : Transylvania reunited to Hungary,
''(Century.
SWEDEN PREDOMINATES.
Sweden.
Prussia
SlGISMOND,
king of Sweden and Poland.
-1604.
Tar of Succession between Swe*
den and Poland In Livonia, 1600-1660.
1604 Sigismond deposed by the Diet of Nordkbping, and the crown given to
Charles IX., uncle, 1604-11.
D5 The Swedes defeated by the Poles at Kerkholm.
1607 Interference of Sweden with Russia—troops sent to aid the czar, Chwofski.
Gottenburg founded.
1610	The Swedes and Russians defeated by the Poles at Clusin.
1611	Novogorod places itself under the protection of Sweden—Kexholm in Carelia taken by de la Gardie.
1611 War with Denmark: Calmar and Risby taken by the Danes.
Gustavus-Adolpiius, the Great, son, 1611-32.
Axel Oxenstiern, minister.
.‘1613 Peace of Si'urud: Denmark restores her conquests on Sweden paying 1,000,000 dollars.
11614 Truce with Poland.
1617 Coronation of the king—restoration of tike privileges of the nobles, curtailed by Charles IX.
1617	Peace of Stolbova with Russia.
1618	Polish war renewed—seat of war transferred to Livonia.
legislation improved: trade, literature, and science encouraged: new cities founded.
1625 Livonia subjugated—and, 1626, Polish Prussia.
The privileges of the equestrian order ascertained and defined.
1629	Truce of Altmark with Poland for six years.
predominates
1630	The king lands in Germany with 15,000 men to aid the Protestants— (see Germany.)
1631	Victory of Breitenfeld.
1632	Victory of Lutzen— Gustavus-Adolphus killed.
1037 The elector claims the succession of Pomerania, on the death of Bogislas, the last duke, childless.
Christina, daughter, 1632-54, six years old, under the guardianship of the chancellor Oxenstiern.
1634	Defeat of the Swedes under Horn at Nordlingen.
1635	The truce of Altmark renewed for 26 years.
Manufactures introduced by Dutch and Flemings.
1640 University of Abo.
1643	War with Denmark.
1644	Naval victory of the Swedes over the Danish fleet commanded by the king.
1645	Peace of Brumscbro with Denmark.
1688 Peace of Westphalia—
Sweden obtains Upper Pomerania (Stettin, Prussia gains Magdeburg, Streisand, etc.), with rights as a state of the Halbcrstadt, Minden, and Empire ; Riigen, Wismar, Bremen, etc.	Lower Pomerania.
The superiority of the North, which had been doubtful since the dissolution of the Union of Calmar, now definitively with Sweden.
Albert-Frederic, —1618 (imbecile),— Joachim-Frederic, elector of Brandenburg, administrator, 1605-8.
1608 John Sigismond succeeds his brother Joachim as elector of Brandenburg, and administrator of Prussia.
1611 Receives the investiture of Prussia at Warsaw.
1614 Conforms to the reformed religion, to conciliate his subjects in the duchy of Clevcs.
1618 Death of Albert-T’rederic.
John Sigismond, elector of Brandenburg, 1618, 19.
George-Wii.liam, son, 1619-40, (brother-in-law to Gustavus-Adolphus.)
The German provinces overrun and
dreadfully
devastated
during
the
Thirty Years'
War.
1631 Magdeburg laken and sacked by the Imperialists, under Tilly and Pappenheim.
Tin: Seventeenth	
i POLISH AND	RUSSIAN WARS.
Poland.	Russia. ~i
Sigismond, —1632,	Boris Godunof, —1605,
j War of Succession be-| tween Poland and ! Sweden, 1600-1660.	becomes a suspicious and sanguinary ty. rant—a Russian monk assumes the character of Deinelritts, brother of the czar l'eotlor, and is supported by Poland— Boris poisons himself.
	Feodor II., son—a few days.
i 1605 The Poles defeat the ! Swedes at Kerkholm. 1607 Discontent of the nobles, who confederate at Sendomir, and declare the throne vacant —dispersed by the king, 1608. 1609 Diet of Warsaw	Demetrius (the pretender), 1605-6, attempts to introduce the Latin ritual, and is dethroned and put to death by Vasili or Basil Chwofski, (a Boyar,) 1606-10. 1607 Forms an alliance with Sweden, and obtains a body of troops under general de la Gardie.
ported by Poland—fails, and is killed by the Tartars, 1G10.
1610 The Poles invade Russia and besiege Smolensko— Clnvofski taken, and dies a prisoner at Warsaw.
Interregnum and anarchy.
Russia devastated by the Poles and Tarturs—one party offers the crown to Ladislas, son of Sigismond of Poland, another to the second son of the king of Sweden.
1610 The Poles garrison Moscow—Smolensko surrenders, 1611—Novogorod submits to Sweden, and de la Gardie takes Kexholm, 1611—the Poles driven from Moscow, 1612.
Dynasty c-----------
till 1726.
Michael Romanoff, 1613-45.
11610 The Poles defeat the j Swedes and Russians at ; Clusin.
! 1618 War with Sweden re-I newed—seat of war trans-! lerred to Livonia.
Descended by females from the house of Rmic, is called to the throne by the consent of all orders of the
1617 Peace of Stolbova with Sweden.
Russia cedes Carelia and Ingermania, including all the Baltic coasts—Sweden restores Smolensko.
1618 War with Poland continued : Ladislas penetrates to Moscow—truce for 14 years : Poland gaining Smolensko, Tchernigof, etc., Jan., 1619, at Divilina.
j 1620 War with Turkey in j Moldavia—the Turks in-: vade Poland without suc-I i cess — Peace, 1622 : the | Poles retire from Moldavia,
! and cede (Jhoczin.
! 1621 Riga taken by the : Swedes.
! 1625 Subjugation of Livonia j by Sweden—and, 1626, of i Polish Prussia.
1629 Truce of Altmark with Sweden for six years: Livonia and the Prussian coasts ceded to Sweden.
1	The government
becomes consolidated,
1623 Renewal of the commercial treaty with England.
and
1626 The serfs (whose condition had been mitigated by Boris) declared the personal property of the landowners.
Russia
1629 Commercial treaty with France.
begins to
1635 Peace of Prague, between the Emperor, the electors of Saxony, and Brandenburg.
Ladislas IV., son, 1632^48.	^^
The royal power still further limited by the Pacta Conventa.
1632 War with Poland on the expiration of the truce : two j	years’ siege of Smolensko,	1632-34—the	Russian	army
li	obliged to capitulate, and	the	Polish	king	advunces	to
i	I	Moscow.
ii	1634 Peace of Wiasma, ceding Smolensko, etc. to Poland,
! j	and entirely disadvantageous to	Russia.
! 1635 The truce of Altmark
j; with Sweden renewed at | j Stumsdorf for 26 years. 1637 Kudah fortified against the inroads of the Cossacks. 1637 Ladislas marries Cecilia, sister of the emperor Ferdinand.
Frederic-William, the Great, son, 1640-88.
Receives investiture from Poland, 1641.
1643 Twenty years’ truce with the Swedes.
Alexis, son, 1645-76.
Tyranny of the favourite minister, the Boyar Morouzoff.
1647	Introduction of posts for letters.
1648	The Ukraine Cossacks, outraged by the palatine Jalinski, revolt under Bogdan Kmielniski, and cut a Polish army to pieces in tire forest of Korsum.
1648 The czar a candidate for the Polish crown
Joiin-CaSimir, 1648-68, brother, marries his brother’s widow.
depression
caused by
1649 Peace with the Cossacks—but the war renewed the next year.
1649 General revision of the code of laws.
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
41
GREAT AND INCREASING POWER OF SWEDEN AND RUSSIA. CHARLES XII. PETER THE GREAT. DECLINE OF TURKEY. MOGUL POWER IN INDIA.
War with Poland on the old dispute of succession—
The Swedes overrun die kingdom, take Warsaw, Cracow, Kalisb, etc.—Lithuania devastated by the Russians—
Lublin burnt by the Cossacks—the king flees into Silesia.
1656 Great insurrection of the Poles against the Swedes; Poles defeated in a three-days’ battle at Warsaw (July 18—20 O.S.) by the Swedes and Prussians.
1657	War in aid of Poland against Sweden—the Swedes, under Ch.
Gust, overrun Denmark—cross the Belts on the ice, Feb. 1658, and menace Copenhagen.
1658	Peace of Roskilde: Denmark forced to cede Scania,
Bleking, Bornholm, and Dronthcim.
War renewed by the Swede, who aims at the subjugation of the monarchy, and erection of a northern empire : siege of Copenhagen : the Swedes repulsed by the Dutch fleets, and the Polish and Prussian armies.
continually
1660 Peace of Copenhagen: 1660 Charles Gustavus dies sud-1 the Swedes restore Bornholm, denly, Feb. 11.	j
and Drontheim.	\	n	VI	, „„„ __
l	Charles XI., son, 1660-97,	I
REVOLUTION IN DENMARK. five years old—queen-mother regent,!
Diet assembled (the first since j	with five counsellors.	|
The crown, cicrgy^and peasants over- ! 1GGO Peace of Oliva :—claim of the Polish king to the Swedish succession resigned : Livonia, Esthonia, awe the nobility—election ami capituia- I	and Ocsel ceded to Sweden—Prussia acknowledged independent of both,
tions abolished ; the crown absolute and j
Denmark.
Sweden.
Prussia.
I
POLA
I
Russ i
Frederic William (the Great),—1688.
The Brandenburg part of
Fhedehick III.—1670.	CmtisTiXA,—1654.
1651 Ulfcld flees into Sweden, and his party is broken up.
1652 Procures the acknowledgment of her cousin, the count palatine of Deux-Ponts, as heir to the crown.
1654	Resigns the crown—died at
Rome, 1689, set. 64.	tlle
Bouse of Deux-Ponts.	Prussian
Charles X. Gustavus,
first cousin, 1654-60.	165G Throws off'his allegiance
1655	Reclaims the crown lands ali- to Poland, and allies himself
enated by Christina.	| with Sweden.
-1668.
John Casimir,
1651	Great victory over the Cossacks and Tartars at Bcrcteskow.
1652	First instance of the “ Liberum veto ” by the palatine Szidzinski.
Discontent among the nobles: the palatine Radjienski flees to Sweden.
1654 The Ukraine Cossacks seek the protection of Russia: hence arises
War between Poland and Russia.
1655 Lithuania laid waste by the Russians.
1656 Truce of Wilna—
Smol4n3ko and the other conquests of Ladislas restored to Russia.
Commerce
Unsuccessful attempt to open a trade with China.
and
1657 Treaty of Wclilau: acknowledgment by Poland of the inde-;1657 The czar refuses to receive an pcndcncc of Ducal Prussia—Alliance of Prussia and Poland i embassy from Oliver Cromwell, against Sweden.	|
1657 Racoczi of Transylvania joins ! the Swedes and invades Poland, but j" ar Sweden, is defeated.	increase;
Mohammed IV. —1687.
1650 Rise of the great family of Kioprili to the Vizirat—Mohammed Kioprili grand vizier, 1650-56.
The empire is 1658-5 Naval defeats by the Venetians in the Archipelago.
sadly weakened
1656	Death of Mohammed Kioprili: his son Ahhraed Kioprili vizier, 1656-76.
Partisan warfare for several years in Hungary— Peterwardein, etc., acquired by the Porte.
1657	War with Racoczi in Hungary, for aiding Sweden against Poland—he is defeated and killed 1660.
by the
1661-4 War with Austria for the supremacy of Transylvania.
court
1662 Kioprili invades Hungary, takes Neuhausscl, Great Wardein, etc.
Increases
civilisation
1658 War of Russia and Poland recommences in Lithuania.
|	greater
1659 Domestic seditions from the
Increasing power of the aristocracy.
.. 1660-3 Disputes on the internal regulations of the government.
hereditary.	|I66I Peace of Cardis with Ru:
1665 The Lex Regia sanctioned i as the fundamental law of \
the kingdom: the diet abo-\	............ |
lished: the king henceforth 1667 Mediation of Sweden in the,	in
the most absolute monarch in 1 peace of Breda between England j
Europe.	| and Holland.	1666 Final settlement of the
1668 Triple alliance of Sweden, cloves question: Cloves, Holland, and England, against the Mark, and Ravensburg to — roachments of France in the j Brandenburg: Berg and
debasement of the coinage
Christian V., son, 1670-99.
1671 New creations of nobility (which the king had hitherto been restrained from confer-ing): and revival of the Order of Damnebrog.
Juliers to the duke of Neu-burg.
Importance.
Spanish Netherlands.
Rise of the French and Anti-French parties.
......... , The former predominates; hence,
p	k j , , 1672 Change in policy - alliance I
Peter Schumacher made earl of . ,	e	i J
Griefcufeid anti high-chancellor. | with trance.	11672 Alliance with Holland
1674 Treaty of Rendsborg with the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who i against France : interrupted abandons his treaty with Sweden.	1673, and again renewed.
Denmark joins against France; hence, war with Sweden, 1675-9.	|
11675 The Swedes invade Brandenburg: routed by Frederick William j	at Fehrbcllin, and lose several towns in Pomerania.
1676	Victory of the Danes under Juel, and Dutch under Troinp, over | the Swedish fleet off Bornholm—Treason and disgrace of the
Danish chancellor Griefenfeld.	'i677 Pomerania overrun-
1677	Doubtful battle of Lund between the Swedes and Danes under j Stettin Stralsund etc. taken
the two kings.	| from the Swedes, who lose
1678	The Danes cross the mountains from Norway, and rout the ; nearly all their German do-
Swedes at Uddevalla.	i minions.
1679 Peace of Fontainbleau between Sweden, Denmark, and France : all the conquests from Sweden restored : the Swedish king marries a Danish princess: alliance of Lund between Denmark and Sweden.
The duke of Holstein-Gottorp reinstated in the duchy of Schleswick.
1682	Alliance with France-French disputes with Holstein-Gottorp.
1683	Publication of a digest of Danish laws, known as the Code of king Christian.
1686 Attack on Hamburgh: compromised by the Syndicate under the mediation of France and Brandenburg, by a payment of 220,000 crowns.
1689 Convention of Altona, under the mediation of England and Brandenburg, with Hol-stcin-Gottorp — General amnesty, and the sovereignty of the duchies of Schleswick and Holstein confirmed and acknowledged by Denmark.
1699 Death of Christian—considered by the Danes as the greatest of their modern kings, both in peace and war.
Frederick IV., son, 1699-1730.
1680 Diet of Stockholm—	11679 Peace of St. Germain cn
All crown lands in Sweden or Livonia, alien- LayC with Sweden.
ducLi't'"a'c!jns\Viting'bcKiy!~aiid°di*prilvedAcquisition of the secu-lcgisiative powers.	[ larised archbishopric of Mag-
1681 The burgher and peasant houses in the diet | deburg.
1681 Iustitntion of excises.
1686 The public debt forcibly liquidated by raising the nominal value of money, by which the public creditors lose 9,000,000 crowns.
1688 Bank of Stockholm established. Remonstrance of the nobility presented by Patkul, who is outlawed for so doing.
1685 20,000 Protestant refugees from France introduce manufactures and commerce.
Frederic III., son, 1688-1713.
1693 The king formally declared absolute i
by the burghers and peasants, who gary. resign their own liberty for the sake 1 of humbling the nobles.
j 1691 Auxiliary troops sent | against the Turks in Ilun-
Tlie trade and manufactures of the kingdom now at their greatest height of prosperity.
The fleet and army in the best condition.
1604 University of Halle.
Charles XII., son, 1697-1718,
15 years old: the other powers encouraged by his youth ; hence arises
1697 Acquisition of Qucd-linburg, Nordhausen, etc., from Saxonv.
participation in the general
1661 Peace of Cardis with Sweden,
1061 The king wishes to name D'Engl of the great Comic, his successor : prcvcoieci by the revolt of the army under the grand- ! Under tile mediation of tile emperor Leopold.
irshal Luboniirski.
Continual civil wars between the king and the nobles.
Conquests mutually restored.
1666 Great victory of the marshal John Sobicski (afterwards king) over the Tartars.
policy of Europe.
1667 Truce of Andrussow with Russia
The Poles cede Smolensko, Severia, Tchcrnigow, Kiow, and the Ukrain
1668 John Casimir abdicates: dies in France, 1672.
intrigues
1664 Great defeat of the Turks under Kioprili at St. Gothard on the Raab, by the Imperialists under Montccuculi.
Peace of Tcmeswarr: the Turkish vassal Abaffi recognised in Transylvania ; and Neuhausscl, etc., ceded to the Porte.
of the viziers
1666	Tumults caused at Salonica by the Rabbi Sabatei Scvi, who pretends to be the Messiah-suppressed.
and
1667	Kioprili takes the command in person in Candia.
1669	Candia taken, after a siege or blockade of 21 years—the Venetians lost 30,000, the besiegers 120,000 men.
Peace with Venice: Crete ceded to the Porte.
Janizaries.
1670	Panayoti, a Greek, made dragoman to the Porte : the first employment of Greeks in public situations by the Turks.
The Cossacks place themselves under the dominion of the Porte ; hence, wars with Poland.
st of the Dnieper.
Interregnum one year.
The diet elects
Michael Coribdt WiEfNowifKi, 1669-74,
Of the blood of the Jagellons by females: an imbecile and incapable prince.
1672 Invasion by the Turkish sultan —Poland cedes Kaminiek, Podolia, Ukraine, the Cossacks, and pays tribute.
1673 The diet refuses to Tatify the treaty—war renewed—great victory gained by Sobicski at Choczim.
John Sobieski, 1674-96.
Successes against the Turks—by the peace of Zurawno, 1676, Poland recovers two-thirds of the Ukraine, but cedes Kaminiek and Podolia.
1683 Alliance with the Empire against Turkey — Sobieski raises the siege of Vienna, and routs the Turks in llungarv.
1667	Insurrection of the Donski Cossacks under Stenko Razin—the south of Russia laid waste.
1668	The first embassies from Russia to France and Spain.
1671 Stenko Razin taken, and hanged at Moscow—end of the Cossack revolt.
1673 The Tourgouth Tartars give their allegiance to Russia.
Its military
1672	The sultan invades Poland in person—Kami-nick taken—ignominious peace concluded by the Polish king, ceding Podolia and Kaminiek, and paying tribute—but the diet reject it—war renewed.
1673	Great defeat by Sobieski at Choczim, owing to the desertion of the Walachian and Moldavian Waiwodes.
Feodor II., son, 1676-82.
1678 Disputes as to the Ukraine Cossacks occasion
The first war with the Porte.
Peace, 1682, the Porte giving up all claim to the Ukraine.
1682 All charters and muniments of nobility burnt at Moscow, to end the disputes of the Boyars on rank and precedence, which arc henceforth regulated by military rank.
Ivan and Peter, brothers of Feodor, 1682-9,
Under llie regency of their sister, the ambilioi Sophia.
Seditions of the strelitzcs or guards. 1686 The truce of Andrussow converted into a permanent peace on the same conditions : and an alliance between Russia and Poland against the Porte.
1688 War with the Crim Tartars in the Ukraine.
Seditions in Moscow : Ivan resigns the throne, and Sophia is confined
War with the Turks in Moldavia and Walachia.
1695 Great victory over the Crim Tartars.
1696 Death of Sobicski, set. 66.
Interregnum one year: then the diet elect, in preference to the prince of Conti, and the son of the late king,
Frederick Augustus I., Elector of Saxony, 1697-1733. Discontent of the Poles at the introduction of Saxon troops: the king obliged to become Catholic.
1699 Peace of Carlowitz : Poland regains Podolia and Kaminiek from Turkey.
in a convent.
Peter the Great,
alone, 1689-1725.
(The Geneveac Le Fort had been his tutor since 1684.)
1692 First trade with China.
Russia
1696	Capture of Azof from the Ottomans.
greatly
1697	The ozar travels in England, Holland, etc.
Increases
Introduction of various manufactures : equipment of a fleet of men-of-war, etc.
in
1698 Revolt of the strclitzes at the instigation of Sophia : they are cut to pieces, and replaced by regiments of disciplined troops.
Order of St. Andrew instituted.
Peace of Carlowitz; the Porte cedes Azof.
power.
1699 Alliance of the northern powers, Denmark, Russia, and Poland, against Charles XII. of Sweden—
Denmark on account of the alliance of Sweden with Holstein-Gottorp—Poland aiming at the recovery of Livonia, etc—and Russia of the provinces o
l the Baltic.
Crown debts paid, and money in the treasury.
Negotiations with the Emperor for the title of king.
Ottoman Empire.
Persia.
Abbas II. —1666.
The history of Persia is almost a blank as to foreign events for 70 years, to the fall of the Soofi dynasty — the monarchs buried in the harem— the external relations pacific.
1656 Reforms in the administration of justice.
10j6 English factory at Hooglcy bn the Ganges.
1655-8 Aurung-Zeb defeats and puts to death successively his three brothers, Dara, Murad, and Sujah, and dethrones his father, Shahjehan.
1659 Revolt and subjugation of Tahmurasp, Wali of Georgia.
1660 His son Mohammed revolts against him, but is overpowered.
1662 Bombay ceded to England by Portugal—the presidency removed there from Surat, 1687.
Soofi II., or Shah Soi.iman, son, 1666-94.
Indolent and pacific— the Usbeks and Tartars renew their ravages on the frontiers.
power
1676 Peace of Zurawno: Poland cedes Podolia, Kaminiek, and part of the Ukraine.
Death of Ahhmed Kioprili—his brother-in-law, Kara Mustapha Kioprili, succeeds as grand vizier, 1683.
retains some
1678-82 First war with Russia on account of the Cossacks—the Porte cedes, at the peace, the Cossack territory and the Russian Ukraine.
strength
The aid of the Porte called in by Tekeli and the Hungarian malecontents : hence,
during
War with Austria, 1682-99.
this
1683	Fresh war with Poland: Kara Mustapha invades Germany, and besieges Vienna—the siege raised by the Poles and Germans under Sobieski— total rout of the Turks before Vienna, Sept. 12th, which breaks the spell of the Turkish military ascendency.
century,
1684	War with Venice: bombardment of Athens by the Venetians.
but gradually
Continual ill success in Hungary : loss of Great Wardein, Tokay, Neuhausscl, etc.
becomes
1686	Buda taken by the Germans, after being 145 years under the Turks.
Russia declares war.
1687	Decisive defeat of Mohacz in Hungary—Revolution in Constantinople, Mohammed dethroned.
Solyman II. or III., brother, 1687-91.
1688	Loss of Belgrade, Sclavonia, Croatia, and Bosnia, to the Austrians.
1689	Defeat of the Turks at Nissa—Mustapha Kioprili, vizier, reinstates affairs—drives the Austrians across the Danube, 1690, and recovers Belgrade, etc.
debilitated.
Ahhmed II., brother, 1691-5.
1691 Defeat and death of Kioprili at Salankaman in Hungary.
The rear in Hungary languishes for several years. 1694 Chio taken by the Venetians—recovered, 1696.
Mustapha II., son of Mohammed IV., 1695-1703. Heads his own armies in Hungary — victory of Olach, 1696.
1697 Defeat of Zenta by prince Eugene ; 30,000 men and 15 viziers slain.
699 Peace of Carlowitz: the Porte cedes—to Austria, all Hungary, Transylvania, and Croatia, except Belgrade and Tcmeswacr—Kaminiek and Podolia to Poland—Azoph to Russia—the Morca and the Dalmatian fortresses to Venice.
Tbe power of the Ottomans broken.
1665 Revolt of the Yogis under the female saint Bistamia— great famine—death of Shahjehan.
in Pc
1668 Piracies of the Portuguese and English in the Bengal
1673 A French ambassador, Gillon, arrives at Ispahan with a splendid retinue.
Rise of tbe Mabratta power under Sevajee, wbo takes and sacks Surat.
and commercial
prosperity of Persia increased in this reign, but the warlike
spirit and power of the nation greatly declined.
Shah Sultan Hussein, son, 1694-1722.
Leaves the government in the hands of the eunuchs.
India.
Shaiueiian, —1658.
Conquests of Aurung-zeb and the vizier Jumla Khan, in the Dekkin.
Aurung-Zeb, son, 1658-1707. Assumes the title of Alemghir.
The religious intolerance of Aurung-Zeb causes
numerous revolts among his Hindoo subjects, tchose faith had been
tolerated and protected by former emperors.
1672-6 The Dekkin overrun by the Mahrattas, under Sevajee.
1673—4 Great revolt of the Patans—repressed by Aurung-Zcb in person.
1679 French colony at Pondicherry.
1680 Death of Sevajee, the founder of the Mahratta power —succeeded by his son Sam-bajec.
1681 Aurung-Zeb attacks the Rajpoots on the death of their great rajah Jeswunt Singh, in order to compel them to become Moslems—hence long
1685 Dissensions with the English in Bengal.
1686-7 The conquest of the Dekkin completed by the reduction of Golconda and Be-japore.
1687-9 The English factories suppressed in Bengal and elsewhere, but restored on their submission.
1690 The Mahratta chief, Sam-bajee, taken and put to death.
1692-1700 Reduction of the Carnatic.
Greatest height of the
Mogul power and territory : annual revenue .£32,000,000.
1698 A second English East India Company—united to the old one, 1702.
Chun-
Chi,
—1661,
1651 The British colonies reduced by the republicans under Sir Geo. Ayscough— New England. having previously embraced that side.
1654 Brazil reconquered from the Dutch by de Vicyra.
1655 Jamaica taken from the Spaniards by the English.
Kam-
Hi,
son,
1661-
1722.
1664 Persecution of the Jesuits and Christ-
ians.
1660 The depredations of the “ Flibustiers,” or Buccaneers, against the Spaniards, begin about this time.
1661-5 Revolt of the Mexicans against Galves the viceroy— he is expelled, and they return to their allegiance—the Arau-can Indians make head against the Spaniards in Chili.
1663	Canada made a royal colony—M. de Mesy, first governor.
Settlement of Carolina — Charlestown founded, 1680.
1664	French West India Company — abolished ten years after.
New Netherlands conquered from the Dutch by the English —town of Manhattan called New York.
1668	Porto Bello taken by the Buccaneers under Morgan.
1669	English Hudson’s Bay Company.
1670	Final conclusion of the “ American treaty ” between England and Spain : each renounces all right of trade to the other’s possessions.
Morgan and the Buccaneers cross the isthmus of Darien and sack Panama.
Influence of the
Jesuits.
1692
Free-
dom
of
religion
de-
clared.
1700 A church built in the palace by the Jesuits.
America.
1680 Disputes between Spain and Portugal on the boundaries of Brazil and la Plata.
Pennsylvania planted by the celebrated quaker, William Penn—Philadelphia founded, 1682.
1683 Mississippi first descended from Canada to the sea by the French—new territory called Louisiana.
The “ Black Code” for the protection of French negroes promulgated by Louis XIV.
1697 Half of St. Domingo ceded by Spain to France at the peace of Ryswick.
1699 Discovery of gold mines in Brazil by the Paulistas.
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1700
f
42
Table xvi.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
BOURBON FAMILY COMPACT. GREAT BRITAIN ACQUIRES INCREASING IMPORTANCE IN THE AFFAIRS OF EUROPE.
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
Portugal acquires part of French Guiana, and fixed boundaries in South America.
Portugal.
Pedro II. -1706.
Spain.
House of Anjou.
Philip V., grandson of Louis XIV., 1701-46.
France.
House of Bourbon.
Louis XIV.-1715.
Great Britain and Ireland.
1701-14	W A
1701 Grand Alliance of tbe Hague:
1701 Act of Succession, entailing the crown <
AMISH	S V
House of Orange.
William III. —1702.
n the clectress Sophia of Hanover, grand-daughter of Janes I., and her descendants, being Protestants.
CCESSION	1701-14.
B	OP	THE	S
England Holland and Austria, joined, 1702, by the Empire, and, 1703, by Portugal and Savoy—to place the archduke Charles on the Spanish throne, and prevent the union of' France and Spain. ’	Allies of France : Bavaria, Cologne, Mantua, and Portugal and Savoy till 1703.
1703 Methuen Treaty of commerce with England:
Portuguese wines to be exchanged for British manufactures.
1702 War commenced i
1705 Pedro imbecile—Catharine, queen-dowager of England, regent.
John V., son, 1706-50.
1703	Fall of the Portocarrero ministry: influence of the princess Orsini.
1704	The archduke Charles lands at Lisbon, and enters Spain with a Portuguese army—opposed by the duke of Berwick.—Gibraltar taken by the English under Rooke.
1705	Charles takes Barcelona, and is acknowledged in Catalonia, Murcia, and Valencia: earl of Peterborough irt Spain.
1706 The English and Portuguese enter Madrid—Philip retreats.
Charles loses all his conquests, except Catalonia. 1708 Minorca captured by the English.
1710	Victory of Stahrenberg over Philip's troops at Almenaia—Charles enters Madrid, but is soon expelled by Vendome.
1711	Charles leaves Spain on becoming Emperor ■but the Catalans hold out till 1714.
T ,	«...	Lv nrinee Eueene—victory of Fridling on the Rhine gained by Villars over the prince of Baden. The French invade
Italy Catinat and \ llleroi succes y pp	un(/£r Boufllers: is repulsed by Marlborough, commander-in-chief in the Netherlands, who takes Liege and
1709-4 Revolt of Venlo, and drives the French out of Guelderland—Rooke destroys the galleons at Vigo, the Hufruenots of 1703 Victories of Stollhafen, Hochstedt, and Spires, gained by the French over the Imperialists, the Cevennes (Ca- 1704 Marlborough enters Germany to assist Leopold, and gains the battle oj Blenheim (Hochstedt). misards) under Ca- 1705 The French maintain their superiority in Italy.
v r r—reduced by 1706 Great, but vain efforts of France—Battle of Ramillies gained by Marlborough over Villeroi, nearly all Flanders marshal Viliam * submits to’the conqueror—the French driven from Italy by prince Eugene—the English and Portuguese successful in Spain. Louis offers advantageous terms, which are refused through the selfishness of Marlborough, Eugene,and Ileinsius.
1707	France successful in Spain—decisive victory of Almanza, gained by the duke of Berwick over the English and Portuguese.
1708	France has the advantage in Italy and Spain, but loses in Flanders—victory of Oudenarde, Marlborough over
the last religious tear.
1703 General introduction of bayonets in tbe infantry.
Financial distress.
1709 Famine and exhaustion in France.
Vendome.
1709 Louis again offers liberal terms, which are again refused. Bloody battle of Malplaquet—Louis again in vain applies
lno^Unsuccessful conference at Gertruydenburg. France successful in Spain—victory of Vendome at Villaviciosa.
1711 After an inactive campaign, preliminaries of peace secretly opened, through Tory influence, at London, on the death of the emperor Joseph—conferences opened at Utrecht, after the disgrace of Marlborough—duke of Ormonde commander in the Netherlands.
1701 Death of James II. at St. Germains’—Louis XIV. acknowledges his son as James III. of Great Britain and Ireland ; he is attainted by parliament.
National debt £46,000,000 at tbe death of William.
Anne, 1702-14,
younger daughter of James II., wife of prince George of Denmark.
1703	Methuen treaty of commerce with Portugal: Portuguese wines to be exchanged for British manufactures.
Machinations of the Jacobites.
1704	Gibraltar taken by Sir George Rooke.
1706	Treaty of Union with Scotland (fruitlessly attempted in 1702):
16 Scotch peers, and 45 commoners, to sit in tbe United Parliament: reciprocal rights of trade, &c.; accepted by the Scotch parliament, March 1706, 7, after violent opposition :— £398,000 granted to Scotland as an equivalent!
1707	The first United Parliament of Great Britain meets, Oct. 23.
1708	Unsuccessful attempts of the Pretender to land in Scotland, frustrated by admiral Byng.
of the ministert engage,
17X4 Peaee of Rastadti the Emperor acknowledges Philip in Spain, on the cession of Lombardy, Naples, and Sardinia.
National debt, 2500,000,000 livres: annual revenue, 160,000,000.
1714 Barcelona taken by Berwick—
The Catalans stripped of their remaining privileges: Navarre and Biscay alone retain their ancient freedom. Succession settled on males and females, but females not to inherit till the failure of the remotest male branch.
1717 Patriarchate of Lisbon established.
Alberoni minister, till 1719.
1717 War with the Emperor: attacks on Sicily and Sardinia.
1717 Negotiations with Sweden against England.
1718 Quadruple
1719 Vigo attacked by the English—a French army under Berwick crosses tbe Pyrenees, and takes Fontarabia and St. Sebastian.
1719 Fall of Alberoni—dies in I taly, 1752.
Ministry of Grimaldo.
1720 Spain accepts the conditions of the Quadruple Alliance—Peace : reversion of Tuscany, Parma, and Placentia, to the king’s second son, Carlos.	1720 London and Royal Assurance Companies.
1722 The Infanta of Spain, betrothed to the king, six years old, ar-	Affe of Venal Adventure* and Speculations.
bishop of Rochester, banished.
rives in France.
1723 The king assumes the government—duke de Bourbon minister —death of the ex-regent Orleans, and of cardinal Dubois.
1724	Congress of Cambray for the general adjustment of differences between France, Spain, Austria, and Sardinia : abruptly dissolved, 1725, on Louis XV. sending back the Spanish infanta,and marrying Maria Leczinska.
1725	Alliance of Vienna with Austria, negotiated by RipperdaLeague of Herrenhausen, to counterbalance that of Vienna, between England, Pranee, Prussia, and, 1726, Holland.
1724 The king resigns the crown to his eldest son, Louis : but resumes it on the death of Louis in less than a year.
1728 Discovery of the diamond mines of Brazil.
offensive and defensive : mutual right of succes-cession : Spain acknowledges the Tragmatic Sanction.
1725	Troubles in Aragon for the recovery of their ancient rights—suppressed.
1726	Short ministry of Ripperda—Blockade of Gibraltar.
1728 Peace of Pardo with England, without any fresh stipulations.
1736 Dissensions with Spain in America.
1750
1748 Assumption of the title of “Most Faithful Majesty.”
Joseph Emanuel, son, 1750-77.
Perpetual separation of the crowns of France and Spain : acknowledgment of the Hanoverian succession in England : Dunkirk dismantled : England acquires from Spain, Minorca, Gibraltar, and the right of trading with its colonies; from France, Newfoundland, Acadia, and v	Hudson’s Bay; France renounces all right of trading with Spanish colonies, signs a treaty of commerce with England and Holland, and acknowledges Prussia as a kingdom.
1714 Factions at court—disgrace of Ilarley—death of the queen.
Louis XV., great-gTandson, 1715-74.
Regency of the duke of Orleans, the kirtg’s uncle—Dubois, minister.
Disorders of finance. Law’s Misaiatipi bank : made Royal Bank, 1718.
1718 Unsuccessful conspiracy of the Spanish ambassador, Cellamar, to imprison Orleans, and transfer the regency to the king of Spain.
House of Hanover.
George I., elector of Hanover, great-grandson of James I., 1714-27.
The Tories and church party oppose the government, and favour the Pretender—manifesto of the Pretender— impeachment of Bolingbroke, Oxford, and Ormond.
1715 Insurrections of the Jacobites in Scotland and England: battles of Sheriffmuir and Preston—the Pretender lands in Scotland, but returns (1716)—suppression of the revolt, and execution of Lords Dcrwentwater and Kenmure.
War against Sweden (in Germany), for supporting the Stuarts.	A standing army	e ,ecun,y of
Disgraceful Act of 1700 against the growth of Popery, intended to com pel the catholic proprietors of land to sell their estates. £100 to any informer against a priest exercising his function, whom it adjudged to perpetual imprisonment—all persons not taking the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, incapacitated
Alllanoe of the
1720 Law’s "Mississippi" scheme bursts—depreciation of paper money, and ruin of public credit
ineffectual by the lenient construction of the judges—a bill, 1705, to render it effective, was thrownout. Proclamation, 1711, to enforce the laws against Catholics. The catholic gentry are treated as a separate and half.
Victory of Sir George Byng over the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro: twenty-one ships taken or destroyed out of twenty-seven, greater paruf*th is Century. *he 1719 Unsuccessful attempt by a Spanish squadron to effect an invasion of Scotland in favour of the Pretender.	-p.	. • .	,	,
1719	The South Sea scheme, originated by Sir John Blount, who proposes, (in order to consolidate the national debt,) that the South Sea ,	°	party
Company shall become the sole public creditor!	IRVOUrS tile tones and
1720	“ Bursting qf the South Sea bubble”—Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, and others, punished by parliament as projectors of the fraud, 1721.
1717 Trial and acquittal of Harley, earl of Oxford, for high treason—Act of Indemnity, excluding Ilarley and others, peror, Trance, England, and Holland, against the designs of Bpa‘~
Jacobites by preaching a-gainst whig principles, the expulsion of the Stuarts,
1722 Jacobite plot, discovered and rendered abortive: Habeas-Corpus suspended for a year: Layer executed, and Atterbury, sente^ ^c^^VTo!)0 ^5a-
Riots and bloodshed in Scotland, on account of the malt-tax.
1726-43 Ministry of cardinal Fleury—strict domestic economy, necessary from financial embarrassment—moderate and pacific foreign policy; (Chauvelin minister of foreign affairs till 1737)
Ruin of the marine.
1727	Preliminaries of Paris between Austria, Spain, and the Herren-hausen League, England excepted.
1728	Congress of Bolssons for the final adjustment of differences— dissolved without effecting anything, 1729.
War with Spain till 1728, but languidly carried on by both sides: squadrons sent to the West Indies and the Mediterranean. 1727 Death of George I. by paralysis in Ilanover.
National debt upwards of £50,000,000.
George II., son, 1727-60.
1728 Peace of Pardo with Spain.	Feaoe for twelve years.
The history of England at this period barren of all events of importance.
The king a confirmed hypochondriac, governed by his queen, Elizabeth of Parma.
1731 Don Carlos, second son of the king, succeeds in Parma and Placentia.
1729 Treaty of Seville with England, France, and Holland, for the garrisoning of Tuscany and Parma by Spanish troops.
1729 Birth of the Dauphin, which deprives the king of Spain of his hopes of the French succession.
Religious disputes occasioned by the bull “ Unigenitus,” against Jansenism.
1733 War of the Polish Succession:
Alliance of France, Spain, and Sardinia in favour of Stanislaus, (father-in-law of Louis XV.,) against Austria and Russia.
1734-5 Conquest of Naples and Sicily by Don [1734 War with the Empire: Lorraine invaded—successes of the Carlos, [see Italy, &c.J	| French and Sardinians in Italy.
1735 Preliminaries of Vienna (peace not finally ratified till 1738): Lorraine and Bar ceded by the Empire to France, but to be enjoyed for life by Stanislaus: the duke of Lorraine to be indemnified by the reversion of Tuscany : Don Carlos established in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies : Parma and Placentia surrendered to Austria, against the will of the queen : France guarantees the Pragmatic Sanction.
1739 War with England, from infractions by [1738-10 The Corsican revolt against Genoa suppressed by French both of the Asiento treaty.	| auxiliaries.
1740-48	WAB	OF	THS
1741 Alliance of Spain and France with the elector of Bavaria: France at first only as an auxiliary in the war.
1731 The use of the Latin language in records and pleadings discontinued by act of parliament.
1731 Treaty of Vienna between England, Holland, and the Bmperor i
England acknowledges and guarantees the Pragmatic Sanction, in return for the abolition of the Ostend Company, as a favour to Holland, by the Emperor.
chevcrell’s sermon in favour of divine right and passive obedience, and consequent impeachment.
1717 Convocation finally prorogued.
1719 The whigs repeal the Act against occasional conformity, and make some attempts to promote religious liberty; but Walpole, to propitiate the Church, is obliged to suspend the repeal of the Test Act.
An Act to receive the affirmations of Quakers instead of oaths, 1722, and the principles of toleration become gradually established.
England neutral, notwithstanding the treaty of 1731,
t the “ War of the Polish Succession.”
1736 The Porteus riots in Edinburgh.
ip it,
il aim of Spain was the acquititic Philip, younger ---„ f Parma and Plac queen Elizabeth Farncse.
[See events under Italy.]
French troops in Germany under Broglio and Belleisle—Maillebois in Westphalia overawes Hanover.
Ferdinand VI., son, 1746-59
1737 Death of queen Caroline.
1739 Complaints of the outrages of the Spaniards in South America on British Commerce—Convention of Pardo, by which the Spanish king agrees to pay £95,000 compensation—but the popular clamour drives Walpole to declare war: admiral Vemon in South America: takes Portobello.
AUSTRIAN	SUCCESSION	1740-4 8.
1740-4 Anson's voyage round the world, and capture of the Manilla galleon.
1741 Subsidiary treaty with Maria-Theresa, in pursuance of the treaty of Vienna—£300,000 sent to Presburg: but the king is overawed by the French threatening Hanover.
1743 British troops sent to Germany in aid of Austria—Victory of Dettingen over the French, the king of England present in person.
1743	Death of cardinal Fleury—cardinal Tencin in power: sets on 1 foot schemes for a Jacobite insurrection in Britain, but the French auxiliary fleet is destroyed in the Channel by a storm.
1744 War formally declared against England and Austria: naval victory of the English under Matthews and Lestock over the French and Spanish fleets in the bay of Hieres.
1744	Alliance of Versailles with Prussia against Austria—Alsace in-1 vaded by the Austrians under prince Charles of Lorraine—invasion of Handers by the king in person.
England maintains the dominion of the seas.
1745 Victory of Fontenoy over the allies under Cumberland.
Influence of the king's mistresses, particularly
Madame de Pompadour.	I
1746-7 The French arms victorious by land [see Germany and Italy] under marshal Saxe; but unsuccessful by sea and in the colonies against the English:
the French navy, both mercantile and national, ruined.
1746 The Austrians in Provence: retreat on the loss of Genoa. |
11747 War with Holland: invasion, and victory of Lafeldt over the Anglo-Dutch army under Cumberland.
7*8	G B X E XL A L	PEACE	OP	AZX-liA-CHAPBX,X.B	1748.
at first between France and the maritime powers, who were weary of a war in which they had no longer any direct interest: acceded to afterwards by the others. Mutual restitution of conquests by France and England (in America, India, &c.)— Dunkirk to remain fortified on the land side—the Pragmatic Sanction guaranteed—Don Philip receives Parma, Placentia, Guastalla, with remainder to the junior princes of Spain— the 4 ci«*»/n nimffi«\n n.:.L	u..	Poitrn 17^0 l.ir which Snain navs Rritain Tlflf) ftflfl in full of all demands.
Sootoh rebellion s Charles Edward Stuart (the young Pretender) lands in Scotland—he routs the royal army at Gladsmuir, and advances into England : is defeated at Culloden, 1746, by Cumberland, and escapes to France, after four months’ wandering—dreadful devastation of the Highlands by the English—destruction of the power of the native chiefs—execution of Lords Lovat, Kilmarnock, and Balmerino—
The Jacobite party hencejbrth pmverless.
1746	Unsuccessful attempts to land on the French coast.
1747	Naval successes against France : victories of Anson and Warren off Cape Finisterre, and of Hawke off Belle-isle.
the Asiento question with Britain settled by the treaty of Buen Retiro, 1750, by which Spain pays Britain £100,000 ii
Though the acquhitioru in Daly were an inadequate i ' pensation for the expense! of the war, ,Spain was the only final gainer, excepting Prussia.
The commerce, marine, and finances of France were ruined by tic u from which she reaped no advantage.
The subsidies of England were the moving power of the Axutrian and allied armies throughout the. w
uncontrolled and undisputed—but the directing influence now possessed on ______
vast expense, and was productive of little solid advantage.
The Eighteenth
Internal Policy and Constitutional History. The Act of Settlement, by which parliament settles the crown upon a new family, putting aside the Pretender and his sister, the duchess of Savoy, and several of! the palatine family, all nearer by inheritance, i is the grand complement of the revolution j and the Bill of Rights. The choice of a | successor to the throne was made by par- < liament—and the right of the House of; Brunswick resting solely upon an act of the ' legislature, no one of its princes can talk ; of divine or imprescriptible right without! branding his own forehead with the name ' of upstart and usurper.	!
Other securities for liberty made in this Act were, that the monarch should join the communion of the : Established Clinrcli—that no foreigner shall be a privy-councillor, member of parliament, or have any 1 office or grant from the crown—that no one holding ! place or pension under the crown shall be capable I of sitting in the Commons—that judges shall only be ! reinovcable upon an address from the two Houses— 1 that no pardon under the great seal shall be plead- ! able to an impeachment by the Commons. Thus were now solemnly laid upon a broad and firm I basis the foundations of English liberty.	1
The clause respecting placet and pensions was re- j pealed 1705, when it was enacted that all members ! accepting office should vacate their seals, and a new ; writ be issued ; and that no person holding any office created since 1705, shall be capable of bcipg elected or reflected at all.	j
The Act of Succession was the last great j statute restraining the power of the crown :! the government now falls almost entirely ■ into the hands of the aristocracy; and par- 1 liament becomes the arena in which the factions of whig and tory battle for place: and power.	|
1708-10 Whig ministry: the junta—j Somers, Halifax, Wharton, Oxford, and Sunderland—force themselves into the cabinet. Harley and St. John, who now! become tories, dismissed.
1709 Great collision of whig and tory! principles upon Sacheverell’s trial.	i
1710-14 Tory ministry—Harley (earl of: Oxford) chan, of exchequer, and St. John : I (Bolingbroke) sec. of state. Whigs dis-1 missed through the duchess of Marlborough’s | abuse of her power over the queen, and her j being supplanted by Mrs. Masham—thus: the fortunes of Europe are changed by the | i insolence of one waiting-woman, and the cunning of another.	'
1711 Qualification of county members fixed at £600 a year, landed property, and borough members at £300 [tory measure].
1714 Whigs in power, and monopolise the king’s confidence—cabinet ministers: duke of Marlborough, earls Nottingham, Sunderland, lords Halifax, Townshend, and : Somers, and general Stanhope. Mr. Pul-! teney sec. at war—Walpole leader in the j House of Commons.	i
1716 Septennial Act passed by the whigs, forced upon them by circumstances J —the sitting parliament to continue seven [ years.
1721-42 Ministry of Sir Robert Walpole —ministerial influence in the House of Commons maintained by direct bribery— pacific foreign policy.
1727 Walpole and the whigs continue in power under George II., notwithstanding a violent opposition—the Civil List fixed at £800,000 per annum.
The parliamentary debates present during this period an annual routine of the opposition endeavouring to reduce the taxation and the standing army, uniformly frustrated by the unscrupulous corruption employed by Walpole — Pulteney and Windham leaders of the opposition.
1740 A motion of censure on Walpole’s system of bribeiy brought forward by Sandys, but rejected through the ministerial majority.
1742 New parliament—elections violently contested, majority against the whigs —Walpole resigns, from fear of an impeachment— Ministry of Carteret, afterwards earl Grenville, 1742-44—Pulteney, created earl of Bath, loses his influence.
The “ secret-service money” in the last ten years only of Walpole’s ministry £1,453,400!
Ministry of Pelham, 1744-54—William Pitt paymaster general.
Dangerous inroads upon the constitution during this half century—seven years’ parliament instead of three—frequent suspensions of the Habeas Corpus Act—repeal of clauses in the Act of Settlement—votes of credit—standing armies.
The dominant faction of the aristocracy maintain power by the squandering of public money, by multiplying places and pensions, by systematic corruption of parliament and the people. Still, in spite of all this, the principles of popular government become more firmly established, and the practice of petitioning parliament grows gradually into use.
a
b
d
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
43	45
WARS OF THE SPANISH AND AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION.
The United Provinces.
Switzer-
land.
William III., king of England, stockholder, -1702.
Germany.
Hereditary
States.
Leopold I. -1705, Emperor, and king of Bohemia. 1701 Frederic, elector of Brandenburg, king of Prussia.
Hungary.
Transylvania reunited.
Joseph I., son of the emperor, -1711.
Italy.			
Genoa,			Lombardy
Venice.	Tuscany.	Savoy.	& Milan.
Republics.			Spanish.
1701-14
0 F
SPANISH
SUCCESSION
1701 Grand Alliance of the Hague between Holland, England, and the Emperor, (joined 1702 by the Empire, and 1703 by Portugal,) to place the Archduke Charles on the
Spanish throne, and prevent the union of France and Spain.
1702 Death of William III., childless—authority vested in the Stotes-general and the grand-pensionary Heinsius—Marlborough declared generalissimo.
1719 Peaoe of Utrecht—Regn-lalloD of the frontier \rtth France, ad-vantageoos commercial treaty, &c. Lille and other frontier towns restored to France:—the Spanish Netherlands left in the hands of the Republic till the eondnsion of a barrier treaty.
Peace for Thirty years:
1715 Barrier treaty of Antwerp with Austria, by English mediation: the Emperor receives the Spanish Netherlands; the Republic to *■ " garrisons in Namur, Dornik,
tremei without soldier* 1
National debt 390,000,000 guilder*, reform of internal abuses:
1707 The king of Prussia succeeds to the principality of Neuf-chatel. 1707 Disturbances in Geneva.
1712-18 Disputes between the protestont and catholic cantons, on account of the county of Toggenburg, which had revolted from St. Gall and embraced Protestantism.
The electors of Cologne and Bavaria side with France.
1703	Defeat of the Imperialists by the elector of Bavaria at Hochstedt.
1704	Great victory of Hochstedt (Blenheim) by the English and Imperialists under Marlborough and Eugene over the French and Bavarians—12,000 killed, 14,000 prisoners—the French driven back to the Rhine.
Joseph I., son, 1705-11.
Revenue qfthe he-
1706 The electors of Bavaria and Cologne rfdiiary state* of put under the ban of the Empire.	g^!der*!0,m,m
1706, 7 The Swedes in Saxony.
1708 Bohemia admitted to a place In the Diet.
1710	Treaty of the Hague between England, Holland, and the Empire, for the neutrality of the Swedish provinces in Germany.
1711	Death of the Emperor, which changes the state of European politics by calling to the Empire the claimant of the Spanish throne, as the allies would not allow the union of these two powerful monarchies.
1710	defeated and driven out of Hungary: dies in Turkey, 1735.
1711 Pucification	of Szathmar with the malcontents :
Amnesty, restoration of pri vileges, religious toleration, election, self-protection, &c.
Charles VI., brother, Emperor, and king of Bohemia and Hungary, 1711-40.
Ministry of Count Zinzendorf.
1713 Pragmatic Sanction 1 vesting the undivided succession to the hereditary states of Austria in the daughters qf Charles, according to seniority, in case of his dying
1701 Revolt of Francis Racoczi—
1705 he is assisted by France—1707 The diet of Oood, under his influence, declares the throne vacant—he is
1714-18 War of Venice with the Porte.
of the other electors.
The country finally tranquillized.
1716 War with the Porte
1713	The peace of Utrecht
leaves the Empire alone in the war with France.	- . -
without .........
1714	Peace of Bastadt and Baden with France .-
The Empire obtains the restitution of the two electors, the acknow- ln conJunCtton Wltil ledgment of the Hanoverian electorate, and a general restoration of	Venice,
affairs to the state they were in before the war.—Austria obtains Victory nfnrinro Fntrono Belgium, Naples, Milan, the Stati degli Presidi, and Sardinia. V 1Cl°y ,	““6®"®
1714 George, elector of nu Bank of Vienna.	nearPeterwardem,1716.
1717 Victory and cap-
nanover. King ot mz CommercialcompaniesatTrieste, ture of Belgrade Great Britain.	which is made a free port, 1728.	p “	*
Emperor joins Venice, 1716— siege of Corfu by thp Turks : raised on the news of the battle of Peterwardcin.
1718 Peace of Passarowitz:
Venice cedes the Morea and Cerigo to the Porte, and receives Vonitza, Butrlnto, and Prevesa, in Dalmatia.
The last war in which Venice engaged.
1718 Quadruple alliance with Prance, England, and the Bmperor, agalnat Spain |
The Emperor renouncing all claim to the Spanish succession.
1720 Exchange of Sardinia for Sicily with Savoy.
ITS Ostend Company established by the Emperor for trade to the East and West Indies—vehemenly opposed by Holland, which joins the League of Hcrrenhaus-en, 1726, against Austria, in order to check it—finally abolished, 1731.
confiscated property restored, Sfc.
1728 The prince of Orange elected provincial stodtholder of Groningen and Gueldres.
1733	Neutral in the war of the Polish succession.
1734	Marriage of the prince of Orange with the princess Anne of England, dau. of Geoige II.
1734-7 Disturbances in Geneva.
The acknowledgment of the Pragmatic Sanction the chief aim of Austrian policy.
1718 Peace of Passarowitz with the Porte:
Turkey cedes Belgrade, Temcswaer, and part of Serna, Bosnia; and Walachia ; and commercial rights to all the hereditary states of Austria.
1722 The Pragmatic Sanction accepted by the Diet of Presburg.
1725 Peace and alliance of Vienna with Spain :
Mutual succour—acknowledgment of the mutual right of succession-Spain acknowledges the Pragmatic Sanction—Russia and l’russi accede to (his alliance, 1726—England and Holland, 1731 (acknowledging the Pragmatic Sanction in return for the abolition of the Oatend Company—Russia and Denmark acknowledge it, 1732.)
1723 Establishment of the Concilium locum-tenentiale (or Council Sanction-Russia and Prussia of Lieutenancy) presided over by the Palatine.
1730 The king of Sweden becomes prince of Hesse Cassel.
Four royal thrones, Great Britain, Prussia, Poland, and Denmark, filled at this time by different princes of the Empire.
1733 War of the Polish Snooesslon: Austria, Russia, and Denmark for Saxony; France, Spain, and Sardinia for Stanislaus: the Empire joins, 1734.
Beforms in civil government and administration of justice.
1734, 5, Russian and Danish auxiliaries on the Rhine.
1737	War with the Porte in alliance with Russia.
1738	Loss of Servia, 1734, 5 Conquest of 1735 Preliminaries of Vienna: H ?°snia> Wal*chia-
Lorraine by the French	not definitely concluded till ^ 9 Defeat of the
—ceded by the peace	1738—France guarantees the	. stri£^® ,at j 0,tz^f ’
to Stanislaus for life, Pragmatic Sanction.	siege of Belgrade by the
with reversion to France:	Turks.
Francis, duke of Lorraine, indemnified with the rever- 1739 Peace of Belgrade:
sion of Tuscdny.
all the territories acquired in 1718, except Temcswaer, restored to the Porte.
Cosmo III. de Medici, grand duke,-1723. Tranquil and prosperous.
Victor Amadeus II.-1730. 1701 Alliance of Savoy with France.
1702 Victory of
1703 Savoy joins the Grand Alliance, Luzzara gained when it is overrun by the French, and by Philip and the duke stript of nearly all his do- Vendome over minions.	the Imperialists
under prince Eugene.
1706 Victory of Eugene at Turin; French driven out of Italy—occupation of Milan and Mantua by the Austrians, 1707.
1713	Peace of Utrecht:
the duke of Savoy acquires Sicily, with the title of king.
1714	Peace of Bastadt: the Emperor acquires Milan, Naples, Sardinia, Mantoa, and tne Stati degli Presidi.
The German branch qf the
House qf Austria again paramount for a short time in Italy.
1720 Spain accedes to the Quadruple Alliance, on the fall of Alberoni, and gives up Sardinia and Sicily on being assured of the reversion of Tuscany and Parma, on the failure of the House of Medici, for the king’s younger son, Don Carlos.
John Gaston de Medici, son, 1723-37, in Tuscany.
1729 Spanish garrisons in the Tuscan fortresses. 1729 Revolt of Corsica against the Genoese: Pompiliana, Paoli, and Ciaccaldi, leaders— Corsica independent, 17 35.
1733 Francis, duke of Lorraine, substituted for Don Carlos in the Tuscan succession, on ceding his former territories to Stanislaus, the dethroned king of Poland.
Theodore Baron Neuhoff elected king of Corsica by the revolters, 1736.
1737 Death of John Gas-
1730	Resignation ofVictor-Amadeus—dies, 1732.
Cuarles-Emanuel III., son, 1730-73, king of Sardinia.
1731	Don Carlos, infant of Spain, succeeds to Parma and Placentia, as fiefs of the Empire, on the extinction of the House of Farnese.
1733-8 War of the Polish succession.
1733 Joins France and Spain against Austria— Milan token by the French and Sardinians.
WAR	OF
The Pragmatic Sanction falls to pieces on the death of Charles VI.
—Spain claims, as heir-general, Bavaria, under the will of Ferdi-nandl.; and Saxony, from the Electress being dau. of Joseph I.
Secret alliance ofNymphen-buig, 1741: France, Ba-
T H I
AUSTRIAN
1743	Alliance with England iu favour of Austria.
1744	Invasion of the Austrian Netherlands by Louis XV. in pers. Lille, Ypres, &c. taken—1745 Defeat of the Anglo-Dutch army at Fontenoy by marshal Saxe—1746 Brussels aud Brabant occupied : marshal Saxe gains the battle of Raucoux: 1747 invades Dutch Flanders, and gains the victory of La-feldt—tn great extremity the States-gensral declare
William IV., prince of Nassau-Diez, stodtholder, 1747-51.
The dignity made hereditary.
1747 Bergen-op-zoom taken by the French.
1749 Conspiracy of
Maria-Theresa, eldest daughter of Charles VI., wife of Francis, duke of Lorraine, succeeds in the hereditary stoles, 1740-80—associates her husband in the government.
1740 Invasion of Silesia by the Prussians—defeat of 1741 Coronation of varia, Spain, and Saxony. Mollwitz, 1741—Loss of Maria-Theresa.
Silesia.	^	t „
...	, .. A ,	.	Declaration of (be Hungarian
n Westphalia to keep the marl- nobles .. Moriamur pro re-ge nostro Maria-Theretia." 30,000 Hungarian volunteers
ton, the last of the Medici
family—succeeded by	Peace, 1738: the provinces
Francis,	of Novara and Tortona in
duke of Lor-	the Milanese to Savoy—
raine, 1737-65,	Parma and Placentia to
husband of	Austria.
Maria-Theresa.
8UCGESSIUN	1780.8 8.
1738-40 French auxiliaries Savoy at first against Aus-
Austria and Bohemia, and take Prague: Charles crowned. Cuarles VI. of Bavaria, elected Emperor, 1742-5.
1743 Bavaria occupied by the Pragmatic army, which gains a victory at Dettingen: the French are driven across the Rhine—Peace and alliance of Austria with Saxony and Sardinia.
Bohemia reconquered — Coronation of Maria-Theresa— again invaded by Frederic II., 1744-victory at Sorr, 1745.
1745 Charles recovers Bavaria—dies at Munich—peace of Fussen between Austria and Bavaria—Austria
under coant Palfi.
Luxury and extravagance increase. The court party becomes stronger, and the country party declines.
The Protestants oppressed.
restores her conquests.
House of Lorraine.
Francis I., Emperor, 1745-65, (husband of Maria-Theresa.)
1745 The Prussians invade Saxony, battle of Kessclsdorf, take Dresden.—Peace of Dresden. 1747 Alliance of Austria with Russia—37,000 Russian troops under Repnin on the Rhine, 1748.
in Corsica—the revolt suppressed, 1740.
1743 Maria-Theresa cedes Finale (Genoese since 1713) to Sardinia: hence, 1745, alliance of Genoa with Spain, France, and Naples, against Austria.
1745 Genoa bombarded by the English.
1740 The Austrians under Botta take Genoa, but are expelled by a risiug of the people—siege and gallant defence of Genoa, 1747, raised by French aid.
1746-8 Fresh revolt in Corsica—appeased.
A P 3 I & 8
tria, but on discovering the views of Spain on Milan, forms, 1743, the alliance of Worms with Austria against Spain.
1744	Savoy occupied by the French and Spaniards, under Don Philip aud the prince de Conti.
1745	Parma, Placentia, and Milan, taken by the French and Spaniards.
1746	The peace of Dresden strengthens the Austrian troops—the French and Spaniards driven from Lombardy—invasion of Provence.
1747	Defeat and death of the French general Belle-isle at the pass of the Ex-illes.
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1788	OBHBHAL	PBAOB	OF	A I X - I. A -
Holland recovers the barrier fort-1 Ilenzi in (Austria retains all her dominions unbroken, except Silesia, ceded to Prussia : a portion of the Milanese to Sardinia (by the treaty of Worms, resses, though mostly	Beme— as the price of her alliance): and Parma, Placentia, and Guastolla to Don Philip, to be held as an appanage by the younger princes
demolished.	| suppressed. | of Spain. Finale restored to Genoa by Sardinia. The Pragmatic Sanction finally confirmed and guaranteed by all parties.
1750|
f
g
SYNCHRO 44 Continuation of Table xvi. SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Eighteenth
BRITAIN ACf=
KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA ESTABLISHED-BECOMES A FIRST-RATE POWER.
S P
re, and, 1703, by Poii varia, Cologne, Mant\
ling on the Rhine gai) 1 by Marlborough, cc Guelderland—Hooke t, and Spires, gained assist Leopold, and ga ority in Italy, i—Battle of Ramillij driven from Italy by is, which are refused I :isive victory of Aim
ily and Spain, but f
vhich are again refused
uydenburg. France ninaries of peace seen pened at Utrecht, afte
o	P
(land: Dunkirk dism; panish colonies, signs	
Sardinia.	1714 Facti
60,000,000.	The
ninister.	1715 Insur
qf finance.	Scotland, 1
lank, 1718.	War agains
^ellamar,	
‘ Spain.	1717 Trial
Franoii t	
epreciation	Victory of 8 1719 Unsu 1719 Tbe
	Company sm 1720 “Burttil
on of Tuscany, Para	
s old, ar-	1722 Jacob
; minister	bishop of ]
Sardinia:	
rrenbausen, to countei ny, neces- VVar with g
c fore's* „„ Deall
jrences—
the garrisoning of lin of his
1731 Then
d Russia. ;s of the
empire to Tuscauy: gainst the
y French
Englan
1737 Deal
1739 Com pay £95,0
i
1740-4 Am
1741 Subsii threatening
1743 Britis
le French
t England and Austria
Alsace in- I nvasion of
745 Victory of Fonter
ind Italy] under marsj
uined.	I
oa. |
ver the Anglo-Dutch a
o a
io longer any direct int Sanction guaranteed—1 the treaty of Buen Re'
1702 Philip arrives in Naples.
1707	Naples occupied by the Imperialists.
1708	Sardinia subdued by the English fleet for archduke Charles.
Peace of Utrecht.
1714
Victor-Amadeub, duke of Savoy, crowned king of Sicily at Palermo.
1717 Spain, in pursuance of Alberoni’s policy, seizes on Sardinia: and, in 1718, on Sicily.
1720 Sardinia given, as a kingdom, to Savoy, in exchange for Sicily, which is reunited to Naples under the Emperor.
Chables VI., Emperor, king of Naples and Sicily, 1720—35.
Naples & Sicily. Popes AND CHURCH History.
Philip V., of Spain, acknowledged in Naples 1701.
1701 Conspiracy in favour of the Austrians detected and sup-
Protestant missions sent out to India by the English, Dutch, and Danes.
1705 Publication of the bull" Vineam Domini "—cardinal Toumon, legate in China, imprisoned by the emperor Kam-hi; dies, 1710.
1708 The Rise of the Herren-Jesuits expelled hutters or Moravian from Holland. Brethren in Germany.
The disputes concerning Jansenism distract the French church—dispersion of the Society of Port-Royal, 1709.
1713 The famous bull “ Unigenitus,” against the French Jansenists and the New Testament of Quenel, produces violent debates and divisions in the Gallican church for many years—the Jesuits defending the bull, the Jansenists opposing it.
Many of the High-CImrch party in England refnse to take die oath of allegiance to the Hanoverian dynasty — hence called Nonjurors.
1715 Bull “ Et illd die” against the Jesuits allowing the Chinese converts to perform religious ceremonies in honour of their ancestors.
1717 Bangorian controversy in England —the Nonjurors attacked by Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, defended by Snape and Sherlock.
1720 The bull ‘•Unigenitus” at length accepted by the parliament of Paris.
1728 Disputes with the Pope as to the immunities of the Church, and rights of legation, finally settled.
1734-5 Don Carlos conquers Naples and Sicily—victory of Bitonto over the Austrians.
Don Carlos crowned at Palermo, 1735.
Independent kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
Boose of Bourbon.
Charles III., 1735-59.
Confirmed by the Preliminaries of Vienna in possession of Naples, Sicily, Elba, and the Stati drgll Pretidj, on ceding Parma and Placentia to the Emperor the succession to Spain by secundo-geniture, the two crowns never to be
1738 Marries the daughter of Frederic Augustus of Saxony, king of Poland — institution of the Order of St Januarius.
1742 Naples compelled to neutrality in the war of the Austrian succession, by an English squadron threatening to bombard her capital.
Clement IX. (Albano). 1700-21. The differences of religious faith now begin to lose their importance with the people, as they already had toith the rulers.
Whiston in England supports the Arian doctrines.
Innocent XIII. (Conti), 1721-4.
1721 Legation of Mezzabarba to China unsuccessful. Christianity forbidden by the Chinese emperor, 1723.
Fruitless efforts of Pfaff, a German divine, to reunite the Lutheran and Calvinist churches.
1724 Fresh edicts against the Protestants in France—many emigrate to Sweden.
1724 The Jesuits forbidden to receive novices, with a view to their suppression ; the design is frustrated by the death of the Pope.
I Freethinker! In England, Collina, Chubb, etc.; answered by Gibson, But-| ler, and Sherlock.
Benedict XIII. (Orsini), 1724-30.
1729 A council at the Iateran for the reformation of morals and discipline in the chnrch.
The “ Appellants’’ in France, headed by the cardinal de Noailles, appeal from the bull “ Unigenitus" to a general council: but fruitlessly.
1727 Death of the Jansenist Abbe-Paris—miracles said to be wrought at his tomb.
Clement XII. ( Corsini), 1730-40.
Rise of the Methodists in England under Wesley, and another division under Whitfield — First separation of the Wesley-ans from the church about 1737—“ Rules of Methodism” drawn up, 1743— the first “ Conference,” or synod of the sect, 1744. Both Whitfield and Wes-
1732 Fanatic exhibitions of the Convulsion-naires at the tomb of the Abbe-Paris — prohibited 1733.
1739 The bull “ Unigenitus” accepted by the university of Paris.
Benedict XIV. (Lambertint), 1740-58.
1740-3 Mystic sect of Swedenborgians commenced by Emanuel Swedenborg of Upsal, who pretends to supernatural revelations, etc.
1745-8 The sacraments refused in France to those who will not subscribe the bull “ Unigenitus”
Prussia.
Frederic III. —1713.
1701	Prussia erected into a kingdom, and acknowledged by the Emperor in consideration of its helu against France. Crowned at konigsberg as
Frederic I.
Count de Wartenberg minister—army, 24,000 men.
1702	Joins the grand alliance against France.
Institution of the order of the Black Eag'e, and of the Berlin Academy under Leibnitz.
The people impoverished by the profusion and 1702 Unsuccessful claim to the principality of Orange, on the death of William III. of England.
splendour of the court. 1707 Acquisition of Neuf-chatel by inheritance, on the death of the duchess of Nemours.
Frederic William I., son, 1713-40.
The army increased to 50,000 men. 1713 Prussia acknowledged as a kingdom by France and Spain at the peace of Utrecht. Seizes Stettin under pretence of holding it in pledge.
1715 Joins in the Northern War against Sweden.
Radical reform: all unnecessary show and expense done away with ; and the kingdom strengthened by a vigilant care for the working classes and population: erection of Chambers in the Royal Domains: abolition of fieft and hereditary leases: the military system carefully improved and extended.
The country, hifUj 1720 Peace of Stockholm with the Swedes.
flourishing, obtains great
1724	Foundation of Potsdam.
influence in
1725	League of Herrenhau-sen: England, France, and Prussia against Austria — Prussia secedes from it, and joins the Imperial party by a secret treaty at Wuster-hausen, 1726.
tbe general affairs of Europe.
1731 Arrival of 16,000 emigrants at Salzburg, enticed thither to reinforce the population.
The narrow parsimony of Frederic I.
Frederic IV.	Charles XII.	Frederic Augustus I.
—1730.	—1718.	(elector of Saxony),—1704.
WAR OF THE HORTHERN POWERS.
1700 War with Hoi-1	11700 Invades Livoniawitha
stein-Gottorp. |	| Saxon army; siege of Riga.
Charles XII. lands in Zealand to aid his brother-in-law, the duke of Holstein, and compels the Danes to yield by the help of a Dutch and English fleet—Peace of Tra-vendahl. 1701 Invades Poland—victory of Riga—Courland and Lithuania overrun. 1702 Enters Warsaw—defeats the Saxons (abandoned by the Poles) at Clissau— takes Cracow.
Denmark again acknow-
Prussian greatness: he leaves
a flourishing revenue, an accumulated treasure, and an army of 70,000 men, surpassing any European troops in discipline: by availing himself of which Frederic II. raises Prussia to a first-rate power.
Frederic II., son, 1740-86. 1740-42 First Silesian war against Maria Theresa.
1741	Victory of Mollwitz; conquest of Silesia.
Joins the anti-Austrian confederacy : alliance with France.
1742	Peace of Breslau, after the victory of Czaslau :
Austria cedes Silesia (except the county of Teschen) and Glatz.
1744	Second alliance with France and union of Frankfort with Charles VII.,Hesse-Cassel, and the Palatinate, against Austria:
The selfish policy of Frederic aimed steadily at his own aggrandisement.
1744-5 Second Silesian war. General toleration.
1745	Victories of Hohen-friedberg and Sorr over the Austrians.
Peace of Dresden with Austria and Saxony:
Silesia confirmed to Prussia: Saxony pays 100,000 dollars: Prussia recognises Francis I. as Bmperor.
Arts, Sciences,
1747 Building of Sans-Souci.
and literature, encouraged and protected.
Denmark.
Sweden.
Poland.
1703 Decisive victory of Pultusk: the diet of Warsaw, at the instigation of Charles, and the Sapieha party, declares the throne vacant, and elect.	Sraimaau.Uc.mH,
1706	Victory of the Swedes under	1704-0.
Renschild over the Saxons and Russians at Travenstadt.
Invasion of Saxony : Peace of Alt-Ranstadt: Augustus cedes the throne of Poland.
1707	Patkul given up to Charles, and broken on the wheel.
1708	Charles invades Russia; crosses the Dnieper to join Ma. zeppa; defeated at Pultowa, May 9, 1709: takes refiige five years in Turkey.
1710	The Danes driven out of Sweden by Steinbock.
1711	Invasion of Swedish Pomerania by the Danes and Saxons.—1712 Victory of Steinbock over the Danes,
Poles, and Saxons, at Gadebusch in Mecklenburg.
Gottorp in Schleswick.
Great advance In Manufactures,
1709 War with Sweden.
1714	Seizure of Holstein-Gottorp.
1715	Bremen and Verden sold to Har nover.
1716	The king of Sweden repulsed in an invasion of Norway.
during
Perplexity and distress qf the Swedish administration: the regency offered to the king's sister, but refused.
1715	Charles returns to Sweden— Stralsund capitulates.
Prussia and England join the alliance against Sweden.
1716	Ministry of baron de Gortz. Loss of the German provinces.
1717	Negociations of Gortz and Alberoni against England, and for the re-establishment of the Stuarts.
1718 Charles XII. invades Norway, and is killed at the siege of Frederickshall.
this reign i
Ulrica Eleonora, sister, 1718-20,
declared queen by election, and obliged to restore tbe ancient free constitution.
1719 Execution of Gortz by tbe influence of tbe aristocracy.
Peace of Stockholm with England :
Bremen and Verden ceded to Hanover on the payment of 1,000,000 dollars.
1720 Peace between Denmark and Sweden:—
Sweden pays 600,000 dollars, and consents to pay tolls for tbe navigation of the Sound—Schleswick to Denmark.
1721 A fresh colony !720t The queen abdicates in favour of hr
sent to Greenland.
three to four
millions
1728 Great fire in Copenhagen; 1700 houses, and the great public library, with 20,000 manuscripts, destroyed.
Christiern VI., son, 1730-46.
A peaceful and prosperous reign.
1733 Bank of Copenhagen established.
The Isle of St. Croix In tbe West Indies purchased from France.
1736 Settlement of the ancient disputes with Hamburg: 1,000,000 silver marks paid to Denmark.
Negligent
administration
Frederic V., son, 1746-66.
Commercial treaty with Spain, and ratification of the former alliance with Russia.
husband
Frederic, prince of Hesse-Cassel, 1720—51.
1721 Peace of Nystad (see Russia.) Peace for twenty years. Sweden
Sweden now more an aristocracy than a monarchy: origin of the parties “ Hats" and “ Capsi" the former under French influence, and favourable to war; the latter for Russia and peaceextensive foreign corruption from the poverty of the kingdom and of both parties.
loses
1724 League with Russia, through the “ Caps,” in favour of Holstein-Gottorp.
the predominancy
1727 Sweden joins the league of Herrenhausen against Austria, in consideration of a subsidy, of the Vorth,
1730	The king inherits Hesse-Cassel.
1731	East India Company established.
and deollnes
Flourishing state of commerce; and of science under Linnaeus, etc. into a
1734 A new code of laws promulgated, seoond-rate
1738 Renewal and confirmation of the ancient alliance with France, in consideration of a subsidy of 2,000,000 francs.
power.
Stormy debates in the diet—ascendency gained by the Hat party, who aim at the recovery of all the provinces ceded to Russia: hence
1741	War with Russia: opposed by the king.
Defeat of the Swedes by Lascy at Willmanstrand in Finland.
1742	Helsingfort lost, and the Swedes driven out of Finland.
Death of queen Ulrica Eleonora.
1743	Peace of Abo with Russia by British mediation :
Finland ceded as far as the Kymen—and d n k e Adolphus Frederic, bishop of Lubeck and administrator of Holstein, declared by Russian influence hereditary prince of Sweden, with succession to his heirs male.
1749 Institution or revival of the orders of the Seraphim, the Sword, and the Polar Star.
Frederic Augustus, 1709-33.
reascends the throne after the battle of Pultowa, and is acknowledged by the Poles.
1712 The Russian troops withdrawn from Poland, but Russian influence continues henceforth paramount.
The luxury of the king, and suspicion that he intends to make the crown hereditary, occasion
REVOLTS, 1715-17,
which the king resists by his Saxon troops.
1718 Diet of Grodno against the dissidents.
1720 Peace with Sweden: Frederic Augustus acknowledged king of Poland.
a corrupt aristocracy
crouohlng to Bum la,
1733 The dissidents declared excluded from all offices, embassies, and public employments under the crown.
an enslaved population,
Frederic Augustus II., son, 1733-63.
The diet unanimously elect Stanislaus Leczinski, but are compelled by a Russian army to elect Frederic Augustus, whose pretensions are supported by the Wiefnowifki party.
1734 Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic by the Russians— escapes to Konigsberg.
1736 Diet of Pacification— Stanislaus resigns—the foreign troops, Saxons and Russians, evacuato the kingdom.
and general Indifference
1741 Biron deposed by the Russians and sent to Siberia—Courland occupied by Russian troops.
prepare the way
for tbe dlMolutlon
Polish kingdom.
b
c
d
f
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
45
INCREASING CIVILISATION AND POWER OF RUSSIA.
PROGRESS OF CIVILISATION IN AMERICA.
Russia.
Ottoman Empire.
Mustapha II., —1708.
1702 Revolt of the Janizaries on the execution of the vizier Daltaban—Mustapha resigns the throne to
Ahhmed III., brother, 1703-30.
Peace for some years :
Peter (the Great), —1727.
Wonderful increase 1700 Invades Ingria—siege of .Narva—great defeat by Charles XII. at Narva.
in the power
Abolition of tbe patriarchate: the czar head of the chorch.
and civilisation
1703	Petersburg founded—conquest of Ingria
and Karelia.	ofjtuma:
1704	Successes in Livonia: Narva and Dorpat
*a^en"	the military and
U05 University of Moscow.
naval forces
1706	Victory of Kalisch by Mezarikoff over
the Swedes.	greatly improved;
1707	Revolt of the Cossack hetman Mazeppa. the empire extended;
1708	Invasion of Charles XII.—defeated at
Pultowa—Viborg, Revel, and Riga taken from Sweden.	arfs an^ actencw
1709	Charles XII. of Sweden takes refuge at Bender after the battle of Pultowa: hence War with the Turks, 1710—the Russians, defeated and surrounded on the Pruth, bribe the vizier Baltaji for the Peace of Falczy, 1711: Azoph restored to the Porte.
1711 Establishment of the Directing Senate, the highest | tribunal of the empire.	|
1712-13 Dissensions with the Porte: accommodated by the wily ambassador Tolstoi, the first of the school t>f Russian diplomacy. introduced;
Catharine (privately married in 1707) declared czarina.
trade and
il714 Naval victory over the Swedes in the Baltic—Finland overrun—Aland conquered.
manufactures
1716-17 Fresh travels of Peter in Holland, Denmark, and France—introduction of French manners and regulations.
protected and
1717 Disaffection of the czarowitz Alexis, who escapes to Naples, but. returns and is put to
dMth>1718-	encouraged;
1720 Naval victory over the Swedes: the coasts of Sweden devastated by the Russian ®eet'	foreign artisans
17X1 Establishment of the “ Holy Synod,” under the con-’ of the emperor, for the government of the church.
invited and
Peace of Nystadt, 1721 :
Sweden cedes Karelia, Eslhonia, Ingria, Livonia, Viborg, and the islands of Oesel, etc., to Russia: Russia restores Finland, pays 2,000,000 dollars as au indemnity, and guarantees the new Swedish constitution.
patronised.
1713 Charles XII., refusing to leave Turkey, is confined till 1714.
1715	Fortunate war with Venice: the Morea conquered by the vizier Ali Koumourdji.
1716	Unsuccessful war with Hungary—defeat and death of Koumourdji at Peterwardein; loss of Temeswaer, etc.
1717	Defeat of Cruscanear Belgrade : loss of Belgrade.
1718	Peace of Passarowitz:
The Porte cedes Belgrade, Temeswaer, and part of Bosnia to Hungary: and to Venice some frontier fortresses In Albania : but retains Cerigo and tbe Morea conquered from the latter.
The czar assumes the title of " Emperor of all the Russias.” Sweden as	Peter, freed from the
1721 Muhammed-Effendi the first Ottoman ambassador to Paris, whence he brings the first printing-press to Turkey, 1726.
Persia.
Shah Sultan Hussein, —1722.
1704 Revolt of Gooigeen in Georgia: he is pardoned on turning Moslem ; and made governor of Kandahar.
Aurung-Zeb, or Alemghie I. —1707.
1703 Teeg-Bahadur, chief of the Seiks of the northern provinces,
Imt to death—hence ong Seik wars.
1709 Revolt of the Ghilji Afghans in Kandahar, and death of Gooigeen Khan—their chief, Meer-Wei's, makes himself independent. Succeeded by Meer Mahmood.
1710-13 Unsuccessful attempts to reduce Kan-
1706 The chout, or fourth of the revenue, ceded to tbe Mahraltaa, on condition of ceasing their devastations.
Meee Asheaf, 1725-30. 1726 The Turks penetrate into the heart of Persia, and threaten Ispahan, but are repulsed by Ashraf.
1727 Peace of Bagdad with Ashraf:
He cedes Azerbijan, Khuzestan, and part of Irak, with the cities of Hama-dan, Sultaniah, and Teheran ; and Is acknowledged king of Persia by the Porte: but this peace Is disavowed by Tabmasp and Nadir-Koull.
1720 Ashraf defeated and driven
1719	Herat taken by the Abdalli Afghans, who become independent
Persia attacked at the same time by the Abdalli and Ghilji Afghans, the Usbeks, and the Arabs of Muscat.
1720	Mahmood invades Persia, but is defeated.
1722 Mahmood again invades Persia, gains battle at Goolnabad, besieges and takes Ispaha Shah Hussein resigns.
Meee Mahmood, 1722-5.
1728 The Turks and Russians attempt to dismember Persia during the contest—1725 Partition treaty between Russia and the rorte for seizing the north and west provinces of Persia, nant patriarch and nobility,
1723	Peace with Shah Tahmasp—
Daghestan, Ghilan, Shirwan, and Mazanderan ceded to Russia—retained till 1739.
reigns despotically.
1724	Alliance with Sweden.
Power In	Russian army 108,000 men.
Cathaeinb I., widow of Peter, 1725-7.
Prince Menzikoff sole and absolute minister.
1726	Alliance with Austria, tbe BTortb.
Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg.
Petee II., grandson of Peter, 1727-30.
Fill of Menzikoff—rise of the Dolgorucki family.
1727	Treaty with China.
Establishment of a supreme privy council of eight members.
Anne, niece of Peter the Great, 1730-40.
Capitulation, limiting the imperial power in favour of the nobles, exacted by the Dolgoruckis, but immediately broken by Anne: MinUtry of foreigner*: Ostermann,
Miinnich, Biron.
1732	Treaty of Copenhagen with Austria: the Pragmatic Sanction acknowledged.
Interferes in the affairs of Poland.
1733	Restoration to Persia of tbe territories ceded in 1723.
1786-9 War with the Porte, in alliance with Austria 1737.
The Russians in the Crimea : take Azoph, and 1737 Oczakow, but retreat 1738.
1739 Defeat of the Turks near Choczim: loss of Choczim and Moldavia to Russia.
Peace of Belgrade, from the losses of Austria :
Russia restores all her conquests except Azoph. But thit war avenged the defeat on the Pruth.
Tahmasp, 1730-2, son of Hussein.
1730 War with Persia on the expulsion of the Afghans-the Turks driven from Azerbijan by Nadir-Kouli—Revolt of the Janizaries—Ahhmed dethroned.
Mahmood I., nephew, 1780-^54. |
1782 Peace of Erivan with Persia:—
Shah Tahmasp cedes all the territory beyond tbe Araxes, bnt Nadir refuses to ratify, and deposes Tahmasp: War renewed.
I Abbas III., 1732-6, son, 8 months old.
I Nadir-Kouli regent.
1734-5 The Turks driven from their Persian conquests— Peace, 1786 : Armenia and Geoigia restored to Persia.
1736 Death of Shah Abbas :
and of tbe Boofl dynasty i
Nadir Kouli succeeds at
Nadie Shah, 1736-47.
Ivan, 1740-1,
grand-nephew, (two months old).
Biron regent, but soon banished.
1741 War with Sweden.
Elizabeth, 1740-62, youngest dau. of Peter the Great.
Pall of the foreign ministers.
1742	Peter of Holstein-Gottorp declared heir.
1743	Peace of Abo.
1747 Fall of Lestocq, the chief of the Prussian party, whence,
Alliance with Austria—Russian auxiliary troops sent, 1748.
Tint Interference of Bosnia as a great Bower in tbe affairs of Western Bnrope, which she newer abandons.
1743-6 War with Persia: defeat of the Turks near Erivan, 1745: Peace, 1746: boundaries as in 1555.
India.
1705 A papal legate arrives ip China.
Bengal, and £_____ .
Sumatra.—Fort William tl presidency.
Tbe Mognl power
Bahadur Shah, or Shah-Alim I., son,
1707-12. The influence rapidly declines	. . .
after tbe death of of Christianity greatly shaken by the disputes of the Jesuits with the missionaries of the other orders and the legate.
Ravages of the Seiks under Gooroo Govind.
The Mahrattas masters of the Dekkin.
Jehandar Shah, son, 1712, a few months.
Fubbuksib, nephew, 1712-17.
1 puppet in the hands of the brothers Abdulla and Hussein Seid, by whom he is put to death:—after two reigns, occupying together only a few months, the throne is filled by
Mohammed Shah, grandson of Bahadur Shah, 1719-39.
Puts the Seids to death.
The reigning familiee in Dekkin and Oude, founded by Nizam^d-Mulk Saadut Khan, become tually independent.
Indolence of the
Einperor:
the Mahrattas
overrun India.
1782 Guzeratand Malwa finally subdued by the Mahrattas.
1735 The Mahrattas defeated at Agra by Saadut Khan.
BnglUb
Bast
1738 Protection to the Kandahar Afghans— a Persian ambassador murdered.
China.
Kam-Hi,
—1722.
1701	Philip V. acknowledged as king of Spain by the American colonies.
1702	Rice introduced into Carolina from Madagascar.
1719
Commercial embassy of Ismailoff from Russia.
1720 An imperial edict, forbidding the missionaries
to preach.
Yong-tching,
son,
1722-35.
1723 Christianity proscribed, and the churches razed, except at Canton.
1727 Treaty of friendship with Russia— a Russian envoy resident at Pekin.
1730 An earthquake at Pekin destroys 100,000 men.
1732 The missionaries expelled from Canton : retire to Macao.
1711 Incorporation of the English South Sea Company.
Newfoundland, Acadia, and Hudson’s Bay ceded by France to England at the peace of Utrecht, 1718. Spain cedes the disputed settlements on the RiO'de la Plata to Portugal; Louisiana to France: and gives England the Asiento, or right of supplying negro slaves for thirty years—whence arises an extensive smuggling trade.
Prosperity of Brazil: the royal fifth from the gold mines 25,000,000 cruzados
Kien-Long, son, 1785-96.
1786-7 Persecution of the native Christians.
Revolts of the
Eleuth
Tartars.
Turkey remains inactive during the Austrian war of succession.
The fanatical eect of the Wahhabeee originate about this period in Arabia.
1738	Conquers Kandahar and Afghanistan ; and repulses the Usbeks of Bokhara.
1739	Invades India: gains the battle of Rur-naul—takes Delhi, and carries off £82,000,000 in money and jewels—the Indus made the boundary of the two empires.
The emperors of Delhi henceforth mere etate puppet*—the Nawab* independent.
17M Hostilities between tbe French and Bngllsb.
1747 Ahhmed Doorani crosses the Indus and sacks Sirhind.
1749 The Mahratta rajahs supplanted by their ministers ”
1747 Nadir auamnated.
Shah, neplu of Nadir, 1747-8.
Dethroned and put to death.
Shah Rokh, grandson of
XI nrii*
Ahhmid Doorani, (1748-73), chief of the Abdalli Afghans, founds a king, dom in Cabul, Kandahar, and part of Khorassan.
Ahhmed Shah, son, 1748-53.
1750 The Mahrattas, called in by the vizier to repel tbe mountain Afghans, make a permanent settlement in Robulcund.
America.
Increasing importance of the English trade with the West Indian and North American colonies.
1717	French colonial regulations — great commercial liberties given to the West India islands, especially Martinique — The Mississippi Company.
1718	The coffee tree brought from Java to Surinam. .
1720 Fresh restrictions on the Spanish-American trade—New and higher tariff.
Amazing increase of the European colonies in population and cultivation during this century.
1728 Discovery of diamond mines in Brazil.
Coffee introduced into the French West India islands from Surinam.
1782 Charter for colonising Georgia, the southernmost of the thirteen states—Savannah founded, 1733.
1733 A tax imposed by England on the importation of sugar into North America.
Denmark purchases from France the bland of St. Croix.
1789 War between Spain and England respecting the Asiento
The firzt war for colonial Intereats. The oint of contest was the
eal point of contest ws earen claimed by Spain a n her exclusive dominion 1
Porto-Bello taken by 'admiral Vernon.
1740-4 Anson’s American expedition against the Spaniards—he sails round the world and takes the Manilla galleon.
1741	Powerful British force ii South America — unsuccessful attack on Carthagena.
Conspiracy of the negroes in New York, under Hewson, to bum the town and massacre the whites, detected.
1742	Invasion of Georgia by Spaniards and Indians, repulsed.
1745 Loubbourg and Cape Breton taken from France by the English.
1747	Act for the cultivation of indigo in British N. America.
1748	Settlement of Acadia, now called Nova Scotia, by the Englbh, chiefly discharged soldiers and sailors.
1750 Exchange of the Portuguese colony on the Plata for districts in Paraguay — War with the Jesuits, who refuse to retire.
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1750
b
c
d
f
46
Continuation of Table xvi. SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Eighteenth
ENGLISH-AMERICAN WAR. FRENCH REVOLUTION.
1750
Portugal.
France.
Great Britain and Ireland.
1760
1770
1780
Joseph Emanuel, —1777. 1750-77 Ministry of Carvalho, mar-auis of Pombal, tne boldest and most unscrupulous of reformers.
1758 The grants of the alienated crown property revoked.
1755 Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake; 30,000 men perish; the British parliament vote £100,000 for the relief of the sufferers.
1757	The Jesuits driven from court.
1758	Mysterious conspiracy of the Aveiro and Ta-vora families against the king’s life—detected & severely punished.
1759	Expulsion of the Jesuits.
1760	Marriage of the Infanta Maria, heiress-apparent, to her uncle Don Pedro.
1762	War (as an ally of England) with Spain—Spanish invasion—reform of the Portuguese army by the count de la Lippe-Buckeburg.
1763	Spain and Portugal replaced on their former footing.
Reform of the army, navy, and universities : abolition of the Index Expurgatorius, the distinctions between old and new Christians, etc. But all theie reforms fell with Pombal.
1775 Hostilities with Spain in S. America — final capture of Nova Colonia by the Spaniards.
Maria I., dau., 1777-1816.
Disgrace of Pombal— release of 800 political prisoners.
1778 Pacification of St. Ildefonso with Spain— American boundaries finally settled.
The queen well-meaning but inefficient: governed by her confessor, who, from a
1782 Portugal joins the Armed Neutrality.
common soldier, had become a monk, and thence archbishop, grand-inquisitor, and prime minister: an able and honest prelate.
1792 Confirmed insanity of the queen: the prince of Brazil regent.
then de Choiseul-Stainville, 1758-70.
1756	Capture of Minorca from the English—admiral Byng tried and shot, 1757, for failing to relieve it.
Alliance with Austria, offensive and defensive: directed against England and Prussia.
1757	The king’s life attempted bv Damien—Invasion of Hanover: convention of Kloster-Zeven with Cumberland.
1758	Defeat of Crefeldt on the Rhine—the En-
glish repulsed in an attempt to invade Normandy.
Losses in N. America—Cape Breton taken by the English under Amherst and Boscawen.
Goree and the other settlements in Senegal taken by the English.
1759 Defeat of Mindcn by the Anglo-Hanove-rians—bombardment of Havre-de-Grace.
Attempt to invade Ireland with five ships under Thurot—defeated and killed, 1760.
Loss of Quebec, Montreal, and all Canada, 1760.
1761 The Jesuits denounced by the Abbe Chau-velin in the parliament of Paris.
1761 The Bourbon Family-Compact i
Spain, France, Naples, and Parma, agree to support each other against all enemies.
1761	Siege and capture of Belleisle on the French coast by the English.
1762	Capture of Martinico by the English.
Montesquieu fl.—Spread of infidelity—the Encyclopedistes.
France cedes Canada, Cape Breton, Grenada, Tobago, restores to France, Pondicherry, Carical, etc., in the Fk--------------------------------------- " ‘ ‘
Louis XV.,—1774.
1751 Foundation of the Ecole 1745-57 militaire, for nobles only.	Ascendency of
Disputes respecting the bull " Unigenitus” the French in still continne: the parliament of Paris ba- India under nished to Pontoise, 1753, for refusing the t, , ’.	,
royal edicts, and a “ Chambre Royale” HupleiX and substituted: but the parliament is re- La Bourdon-instated the next year.
3	nayc.
1752 Disputes respecting the privileges of parliament, occasioned by an appeal against
1752	The importation of Irish wool to England opened, to two ports only. j^v ^J^Game act acts for The New or Gregorian style adopted-the 3rd of September being counted
clandestine marriages, etc.
1753	Purchase of the “ British Museum” by parliament.	~
George II., —1760.
1751 Death of Frederic, prince of Wales, father of George III.
1754 Death of Pelham nistry of his brother the duke
Profligacy of the court. the kings 1754 Hostilities with England in N. America, respecting the boundaries of Nova Scotia, of Newcastle, 1754-56. StealUtfalra! BemUmSute? 1755 Naval ho9tilities : defeat and death of Gen- Braddock on the Ohio.	Ministry of William Pitt
under her inflhence till 1756-^	Disputes between the ministry and the Irish parliament on the application ' ^^“ahe efchfqu*1-^88*
of the surplus revenue of Ireland.
ttt"	1 ,	.	. ,	1761 Ministry of the king’s
1756-63 Seven Years War, connected by treaties with the Seven Years’ War on the favourite, the earl of Bute—
continent.
National debt £78,000,000.
1756	Subsidiary alliance with Prussia.
1757	The “ Militia Bill,” making that force efficient. Victory of Plassey in India—the foundation of British supremacy—further successes, 1760—siege and capture of Pondicherry, 1761.
he retires 1763, but retains his influence.
Grenville ministry 1763-65— Wilkes expelled the house of commons for a seditious libel in the North Briton.
1765 Rockingham ministry:
1758	Abrogation of the convention of Kloster-Zeven—second subsidiary f^a/i_^r«ult^of^Wi?kes’ treaty with Prussia—British troops sent to Germany—disputes with the
Dutch, on the detention of their ships conveying stores to tne French, and , - .'	~ A
trading with their colonies.	««.*»*., 'ZESSttSS,
The English fleets under Hawke and Anson ride triumphant	the influence of lord Chat-
in the Channel^ Maritime and Colonial bmn (Pitt)-the duke of Grafton retires on the Amc-
1759	Victory of Quebec and conquest of Canada; death of gen. Wolfe. rfcan question.
Naval victories—off Cape Lagos by Boscawen over the Toulon fleet— Minittm nf	,
off Brest, by Hawke, over the grand fleet under Conflans.	1770-82 hostile to Amc-
_ TTT ,	power.	rican liberty—Lord Chatham
George III., grandson, 1760-1820.	jn opposition ; in the com-
XT • •	CivU list fixed a. £800,ooo	mons fcox, Burke, Dunning.
1761	Negociations with France; broken off on the Family-Compact.	^	...	,	.. r
1762	War with Spain : conquest of Havana, Trinidad, and Manilla, with	P™®*1®®
their dependencies, after the preliminaries of peace were signed in Europe. ^Hc^rs CyTtablish" The unpopularity of the war since Pitts retirement compels Bute to make ed and in constant use—
peace in the full tide of success.	numerous petitions about
National debt increated to £146,000,000.	1780 for reform and retrench-
1763 Peace of Parle between Franoe, Spain, and England:	ment—still more for the abo-
' other West India Islands ^Senegal, etc., in Africa^ and Minorca (restored) to England:—England Jition of the slave-trade 1787
Indies, a share in the Newfoundland fishery, and the isle of Goree:—to Spain, Havana, Trinidad,
Manilla:—Spain cedes the Floridas to England; receiving Louisiana from France (a transfer not made till 1769).
Public meetings first called to
'jesnits—^cath°of madame Voltaire, Diderot, Rous-
seau, etc., combat arbitrary
de Pompadonr.
1766 Lorraine united	„	,
to France on the government and supersti-death of Stanislaus tion — and combine, with Leczinski — unjust the shameless profligacy of execution of general tfie Jijng (je paTC aux cerfs, etc.), ruined finances, civil and religious dissensions, and universal depravity and corruption, to pave the way for the approaching Revolution.
1770	Dissolution of the French E. India Company.
1771	Abolition of the Parliaments after repeated disputes with the crown : the last shadow of liberty, or popular representation.
Debt 4,000,000,000 livres: revenue 500,000,000 firancs.
Lally.
1768	Genoa cedes Corsica to France.
1769	Ministry of the due d’Aiguillon—influence of madame du Barri, the king’s mistress.
Louis XVI., grandson, 1774-93.
Married to Maria-Antoinette of Austria.
Maurepas prime minister—Vergcnnes minister of foreign affairs —restoration of the parliaments—emancipation of the serfs on the royal domains—Turgot comptroller-general of finance, 1774-0 —the “ Phyeiocratt.”
1776-81 Nccker comptroller-general—Franklin in Paris—contagion of American enthusiasm—arms and money subscribed for the Americans, and many French volunteers join them, who, on their return, head the Revolution in France.
1779 Scheme of invading England from Normandy with 400 flat-bottomed boats.
Naval war in America—capture of Grenada.
1781 Resignation of Necker.
Indecisive naval engagement between Hood and de Grasse in the W. Indies.
Ordinance declaring no person can obtain the rank of captain unless ennobled for four generations — and interdicting every military grade to plebeians—one of the secondary causes of the French Revolution.
1765 The Isle of Man annexed to the 1793 Bengal, etc., in India, ceded to the E. debate public questions and crown—death of chclier de St.	Pe‘itf“ 1769'
George, son of James II.	in India.	The great influence which
1765 Stamp Act for America: partly as an assertion of power over the the crown had naturally ac-colonics, partly to reduce the expenditure of the late war—revoked, 1766, qufred by the power and re-but the right maintained.	„„ 0	a ... n a *i- • spect which England had ob-
1706-8 Wallis and Carteret’s voyage	e(LF ‘	A1* l" tainCd abroad, joined to her
of discovery in the s. Sea—Cook’s Mysore.	unexampled domestic prospe-
first voyage of discovery, 1708-71— 1767 Attempts at external taxation of the American rjtv_tho rmrnnt inflnonro
Bruce discovers the source of the colonics by duties on the importation of glass,	,	uPl ..
Nile 1708.	paper, white lead, painter’s colours, and tea— Which W3S now generally and
1709 Letteri of Junius. and the establishment of an American civil list. openly employed in securing 1771 Disputes between the court uea-9 mikes’s riots.	parliaments favourable to the
and the city of London, on the	court and its ministers—the
publication of parliamentary de- exce t Qn tca	’ great increase in places and
p .	pensions, connected, as they
1772	The American judges salaried by naturally became in public
the crown—a measure viewed witn opinion with the enormous suspicion by the Americans.	growth of the national debt,
1773	The E. India Company exports tea to Arne- ff*v® r'9e the idea of
rica, but it is thrown into the sea at Boston by ParUttmantory ttafsmi. the Americans.	1770 Wilkes’ attempt—Pitt’s motion,
Trial and acquittal of lord Clive for supported by Fox, lost by 293 to 148, misconduct in India.	Burke’s carried 1782.
bates—two aldermen sent to the Tower.
1772 Royal Marriage Act.
UNEXAMPLED PROSPERITY OF MANUFACTURES FROM THE APPLICATION OF THE STEAM ENGINE TO THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
SPINNING-JENNIES, ETC.
1775-83 American Revolutionary War, (See America.)
English generals: Howe, Clinton, Burgoyoe, Cornwallis—American: Washington, Gates, Sullivan, Lee, etc.
1775 Lord North’s “ conciliatory measures” for America rejected by the Colonies—remonstrance of the city of London against the war—17,000 Hessian mercenaries hired for the war in America, 1776—the English evacuate Boston—Declaration of American independence, July 4. 1777 Gen. Burgoyne surrenders with 10,000 men at Saratoga—1777 The American war violently opposed by lord Chatham, but supported by both houses of parliament.
1778 Alliance and co-operation with America—War with England— 1778 Unsuccessful attempts to conciliate the Americans: com- Rockinaham ministry 1782 Naval	victory	of the	English	undo,	Keppel	off	U,hant-68 sail of	the £“7?.^	Foi an/sholbume soLtarici
line	obliges	the	English	squadron	Of	38	to	retreat before them in	the fit, while pleading for America,	in the house of peers, and dies	of state.
British Channel.	800n af,er’	Contractors excluded from parlia-
1779-	82 Discontent of Ireland—armed associations of volunteers.	from voting0^ ^lcctioM^- nse'ew
1780	The Armed Neutrality, aimed at the maritime supremacy of Britain : PlaSe*abolished-better government
■nr -.i it 11 j	3	of Ireland began—liberal and sound
— War Wltfl Holland.	measures generally introduced. -
1780—	4 War with Hyder AH in India. JJW £ptain Cook killed at Owbybee.	dle», Sholborne prime
1781	Naval victory over the Dutch off	°f * "ew planet by	‘ Z
the Doggerbank. D .	. , ‘	, ..	North and Fox coalition mi-
00	Peace clamorously demanded by the nation.	nistry till Dec. 1783—gene-
1781 Capitulation	of lord Cornwallis with his fleet	and army at York-town	reprobated—dismissed
in America—the	American war henceforth hopeless—1782 Opposed by	?n th® India bill—Sheridan
parliament—lord North resigns.	leader of the opposition.
1782 Acknowledgment of 1^ ministry of William the independence of Ire- Fitt, 1788-1801. 1783 Feaoe of Versailles between France, Spain, Borland, and Amerioai land and its parliament First lord of tbc treasury and chan-England acknowledges the Independence of the United States; restores Tobago, Senegal, and the conquests in the E. Indies, from the authority of the
to France : Sinorca and the Floridas to Spain-Holland cede. Negap.tam to England.	British parliament.	.Te Tm^nn, h",
1782 Great naval defeat of de Grasse in the West Indies, by the English under Rodney.
Spain—Holland cedes Negapatam
Rise of French troubles.	The American
1783-7 Calonne minister of finance—national debt now 6,000,000,000 livres! Assembly of Notables—Calonne obliged to llee.
1790
Affair of the queen’s necklace raises an ontcry against her.
1787 Brienne minister of finance—the parliament refbses to register the taxes, and declares that the etats-generaus alone can legalise them—Louis banishes the parliament to Troyes—recalled—flirt her breach.—Due d’Orleans exiled, and two councillors of parliament sent to the Bastile— parliament increases its popularity by registering an edict giving civil rights to Protestants—project to create a cour pleniere to replace parliament —parliameDt protests against its acts, and is supported by nearl£ all France—the minister is dismissed, and Necker recalled—Public rejoicings in Paris and elsewhere, mixed with some excesses.	Mirabeau.
French Revolution, 1789-99.
Meeting of the etats-generasix, 1*/ May, 1789—Frivolous details of etiquette irritate the public—le tiers etat everywhere supported by the people—it proclaims liberty and equality, and the throne totters—vexatious opposition induces the tiers etat, upon the proposition of the abbe Sieyes, to declare Itself the National Assembly.—Paris Is surrounded by troops—the people everywhere rise against them—the Bastile taken and rased, June 14—Bailly mayor; Lafayette commander of the national guards.
General emigration of nobles and clergy.
Aug. 4. Declaration of the rights of man—abolition of privileges—liberty of the press. Nov. 5. Palace of Versailles attacked, and the king brought to Paris.
1790	Fite of the confederates in the Champ de Mars, the king swears to the new constitution—Jacobin club till 1795—confiscation of church property—municipalities established
Liberty and Equality.
1791	Flight of the king to Verennes—trial by Jury instituted.
Legislative assembly, Oct. 1, 1791, till Sept. 28, 1792.
Lafayette resigns—sway of the Jacobins—anarchy and riots—massacre at Avignon.
1792	War with Germany—royalty abolished, and France declared a republic—
tne Ring beheaded, 1793--.Rolyn of terror._______________________
ar, though ending In the loss of the colonies, showed that the maritime power of England was more than a match for the rest of Europe.
Pitts Sinking Fund 1786 :
amount of the yearly Interest of the national debt—for some time absurdly held up as a sort of miraculous means of paying off the national debt.
The stability of the British empire from this time mainly dependent upon public credit.
National debt £238,000,000
1784	Peace with Tippo Saib.
1785	Agitation in Ireland for reform—determination to import nothing from England.
1780 Impeachment of Warren Hastings for corrupt government in India—his trial lasts till 1795.
Speeches of Burke, Sheridan, etc.
England flourishing
Attempt to assassinate the king by a lunatic.	in peace and
1787	First settlers in Botany Bay.	.	.
1788 The king insane — Pitt opposes the prince of Wales for regent— The funding system has so in-Death of Charles Edward, the last pretender.	..	.j a* terwoven the money affairs of
*	its national debt government with those of the
nation at large ; and both so entirely depend upon an increasing national prosperity, without which it would be impossible to pay the interest on 1792 Gradual abolition of the slave-trade agreed to.—Peace with Tippoo the debt, that the whole fabric Saib, by which he cedes half his dominions to England.	0f British society rests upon
People in favour of reform, but the government oppose	Numerous emigrants	the preservation of industrial
every alteration-M* old creed of tie aristocracy.	from France.	Qnd commercial superiority.
Upon the execution of Louis XVI., England joins the Austrian alliance.
its national debt
1790 July 14, Earl Stanhope and 600 gentlemen meet to celebrate the French Revolution. Burke on the French Revolution—Paine’s Rights of Man,	decreasing
Sense, widely circulated.
1791 Act to divide Canada into Upper and Lower—quarrel of Fox and Burke—i Birmingham, the houses of Dr. Priestley and others destroyed by the mob.
b
c
d
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
47=
49
SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, 1756-63. SUPPRESSION OF THE JESUITS.
Holland.
William V., son, (three years old,) 1751-95,
Hereditary stadtholder, under the tutelage of his mother, Anne of England, daughter of George 11.
Neutral in the Seven rears’ War, and in the war of France and England.
Continued disputes with England on the capture of neutral vessels— the French colonies entirely supplied by Dutch ships—
1759 Death of the princess Anne—prince Louis of Brunswick regent.
petty hostilities with the English in India: decline of trade from the superiority of the British navy.
1766 William V. installed in the government : marries a Prus-princess.
Rise of the Orange and anti-Orange parties : the latter opposed to the late re-establishment of the hereditary stadtholdership— the decay of foreign prosperity increases the internal discontent.
1780-3 War with England, from the accession of the republic to the Armed Neutrality.
Swit-
zer-
land.
ie Empire.	Austria. Bohemia.
Home of Xiorralne.
Francis I. -1765, Emperor, and Maria-Theresa, -1780.
1752-3 Attempts to pro- 1750-3 Systems of duties The electoral
core (he election of the ~-J ------
archduke Joseph, only eleven years old, king of the Romans, frustrated through Prussian Influence: hence increasing jealousy between that power and
Austria.
1756-63 Seven Years' War of Austria and Prussia— the war of England and France becomes mixed up with it by alliances. 1756 Invasion and \15§ Alliance with 1756 Deconquest of Saxony Prance (the first), feat of
1765-6 Disturbances in Geneva.
Germany.
Hungary.
1753 Edict for the tole- female sove-ration of Protestants, reign, was confirmed by the peace of Aix-la-Chap.
1755-94 Ministry of the chancellor count fcaunitz.
Milan, dec. under Austria, Modena under he House of Este.
The Em-
by Frederic II.—
count Brown at
and renunciation of the English alliance: plan for Lowositz 17,Q . m the partition of b7 Ftede- ,7“ Prussia between ric II.
Austria, Saxony, 17,7 Tn &c., 1757.	. V*‘
1757 Turkish em-
bass, to Vienna.
of the title of “ Apostolic Majesty" as king of Hungary.
Dresden taken : the Saxon army capitulates atPima.
1757	Prussia put to the ban: victory of the French in
Hanover over Cumberland at
Hastonbek: con-	.	• „
vention of Kloster-Zeven: abrogated:	.
defeat of the French and Austrians by . T®11 V Frederic at Rossbach.	1117 a
1758	Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick . .	*
defeats the French at Crefeld—1759	,
victory of the Prussians and allies	at
under duke Ferdinand at Minden, over « ... .
Contades and the French—victory of p ,
Maxen, by Daun, over the Prussians:	*	. .
Dresden retaken—1760 Great victory .	.
at Torgau by Frederic: who maintains 0 himself in Saxony—1761 Defensive war: Frederic maintains himself in Saxony, and Ferdinand in Hanover —1762 Victory of the Prussians at Freiburg.
1763 Peace of Hubertsburg with Prussia : mutual restoration : Silesia confirmed to Prussia.
Prussia and Austria hold the balance of power on the Continent.
Joseph II., son, Emperor, 1765-90, co-Tegent with his mother in the hereditary states.
The rettleu and inno- 1770 Revenue 90,000,000 guilders. 1765-90 The Diet eating spirit of this
prince only restrained Austria increasing in wealth never assembled, within bounds during .	■	? ...	,. and the Ouice 01
the life of his mother, and prosperity notwithstanding . . vacant the evils resulting from the	"...
abuse of paper money.
1771-2 Fruitless attempt to mediate between Russia and country treated as the Porte.	a colony of
1772 First partition of Poland: Austria.
Rise of the secret Atistria acquires Galicia god Lodomiria.
society of the	m4AbolitioD ofjodl- ^nce^nht ^JfZ^clSd7
Illuminati «al torture.	peasantry from	*	* ’
Rapid advances of civilisation and literature In Germany.
Since 17C3 German government, customs, and language, are
gradually introduced: Hungarian life-guards at Vienna: the nobles frequent the Austrian court.
the Hungarian constitution disregarded: the
Italy.
Genoa,
Venice,
Republics.
Savoy,
&c.
Charles Emanuel III.,-1773.
peror Francis I. grand duke,
-1765.
1753 Treaty between Spain, Sardinia, and the Emperor (as grand duke), for the tranquillity and neutrality of Italy: negotiated by the Spanish minister Carvajal.
Peace in Italy till the French Revolution.
1754 The Corsicans,
Unpopular beaded by Manu-Paoli, again
government	revolt factores and
against
of the	Genoa. Agriadture
Fruitless
marshal attempts to flourish: reduce them di Botta, by French
aid, the serfa in 1755-68. Savoy.
Charles III. -1759. bis brother, don Philip, duke of Parma Placentia, and Guastalla, -1765.
viceroy for the Emperor.
Peter-
Leopold,
second son of Francis,
1765-90,
resides in Florence— mild and beneficent
in Bavaria.	£«£
1777 Extinction of the electoral line of £eeI1|£(Jha'd Bavaria by the death of Max. Joseph : defined in succession of the Elector-palatine, and consequence. j77g Acquisition union of the Palatinate with Bavaria. _ T______0f the Buckowina
and occupied from Poland, and reunited to Hungary.
from the Porte, as an ancient dependency of Transylvania.
Fresh
Franh-e,h 1778 Compact of Vienna with the [™heDlwn the'pro- Elector-palatine, for the annexation stans, Saxons, testaut of Bavaria to Austria; Bavaria occu- andb^*^lcn'
"are to' P*e<^ by Austrian troops: hence eluded— 1778-9 War of the Bavarian succession: andTp-l Austria against Prussia and Saxony, penzel ;1779 Congress and Peace of Teschen, guaranteed submit to Ruasia: Austria gives up her claim on Ba-subsidies.! varia on receiving the district between the Inn,
Salza, and Danube.
1780 Death of Maria-Theresa : Joseph II. succeeds in the hereditary states—refuses to take the coronation oaths.
a mild
and paternal
government.
Ferdinand, 1707 The son of don Venetian Philip, 8UC-•enate forbids „ jrt bequests for ceeds totbe ecclesiastical duchy 01 purposes. Parma, Ac.
1768 C.,,6!We02-sica ceded by Genoa
mine in Tub- to France, cany: the in return for grand duke aid against popular from ,he rebels-
dies there 1807.
Naples & Sicily.
1754 Promulgation of a new code of laws—tbe Codex Carotin us.
Increasing prosperity from the residence of the monarch.
1759 Charles becomes king of Spain.
Ferdinand IV., 1759-1825, (eight years old.)
Ferdinand VI. -1759.
mal reform ant -Ensenada mlnls-of war and finance; Carvajal,and after him Wall, of foreign affairs: Influence of the Italian singer FarineUi.
1753 Concordat with the Pope, giving the crown the nomination to all benefices in Spain,except fifty-two.
By economy, and the encouragement of commerce and agriculture, the revenue is so far restored, thatasurplusof£3,000,000 is in the treasury at the death of Ferdinand: the army and navy in good order.
Neutral in the Seven Years' Wur, till 1761.
Charles III.,
half-brother, (king of Naples,)
1759-88.
1750
1761	The Bourbon fix-mlly compact
[see France.]
1762	War declared against England and Portugal— Invasion of Portugal.
1763	Peace of Parle i
Spain and Portugal re-
Stlaced on their former ooting [see France].
1700 The Golden Booh of Venice 1770 New opened, and code of laws many new promulgated.
1773 Acquisition of Castiglione to Lombardy from the Gon-
VlCTOR-
Amadeus III., son, 1778-96.
1767 The king assumes the government—able ministry of Tanucci till 1777.
1768 Expulsion of tne Jesuits from the Two Sicilies, Parma, Ac., and confiscation of their property and territories.
1760
1781 Disturbances in Geneva, be-
the Ne-gatifs (aristo-crats)and the Re-
1781 Indecisive sea-fight off the Dogger Bank.
1781 Loss of the colonies—
Negapatnam, St. Eustathius,
4c., taken by the English, and Trincomalee, 1782.
1781 Joseph II. arbitrarily abrogates the Barrier Treaty, Revenue 105,000,000guilders. and forces the Dutch to evacuate the fortresses.	Rach reforms.
1781 New forms of judicial process—punishment of death abolished 1782.
1781	Edict of toleration for Protestants: ecclesiastics forbidden to acknowledge any foreign superiors or papal edicts—dissolution of the monasteries, 1782—severe administration and immoderate taxes.
1781 Abolition of Great discontent from villeinage.	the eioeeping changes
Flourishing state	introduced by Joseph.
1782	Adhesion to the firmed Xeutrality. The regalia removed to Pius II. visits Vienna to remonstrate enn**
against the ecclesiastical changes.	__
of Austrian commerce and 1788—91 War with Commercial treaty with Russia,	in
1785.	person: is routed at
manufactures.	Logosch; the Turks lay
1785	Renewed	project for the union of Bavaria	^V^effig^.
and the Upper Palatinate to Austria, by Joseph II. and the Russian ambassador Romanzow :—	j 799 Insurrection
the Elector to receive the Austrian Netherlands in exchange, f as tbe "kingdom of Burgundy"-prevented by	ot ?ne I°a?[ialC8
The Confederation of German princes {Deutsche against the muo-Furstenbund)	under Prussia (see Prussia).	vations.
Prussia henceforth the centre of the German	} a.u 0 ,n
federate system.	^ Bel^e‘
1780 Promulgation ot a new civil code. Joseph obliged to 1789 Revolution in Liege against the prince- rescind all the late bishop—reinstated by Austria, 1791.	reforms, 1790.
Leopold II., brother (grand duke of Tuscany), Emperor, and king of Bohemia and Hungary, 1790-92.
1791 French emigrant. 179°A Congre^ of Reichenbach at Cologne.	—Austria, Prussia, and Eng-
land, for the settlement of Belgium.
1791 Conference of Pllnlts.
Francis II., son, 1792-1835.
1783	Peace of Versailles : Negapatnam ceded to England.
The discontent arising from the unsuccessful war with England encourages the anti-Orange party, who accuse the stadtholder of correspondence with England.
1784	Dispute with Joseph II. as to the navigation of the Scheldt:
settled by French mediation 1785: Joseph allows the Scheldt to remain closed on receiving 10,000,000 guilders.
1785	French Alliance.
1780 The	Belrlnm
rt^£n!!r 1787 Disturbances from tbe innovations of tbe Em-by the peror, particularly in the
* 1787* “nlTe"ily of Restored by 1W® Revolt of the patriot ‘ Prussian Party under Van der Noot force. *nd Van der Mersch: the 1768 imperial troops driven out fiUianee of of B"lBinlB'
England, 1700 The revolted provinces Holland, % declare themselves inde-Prustia, pendent and united, for the guarantee of the 17®t Dissensions of the stadtholder’s patriots—Belgium again rights. occupied by the Austrians.
as-	z
:lent constitution.
178® Revolution at Gene-
stitntion.
1773 Pope Clement XIV. abolishes the Order of Jesuits.
The profound peace which reigned in Italy during this period,
Inquisition I in Tuscany.
offers not a tingle event worthy to be noted— but this tranquillity was only superficial, and the
spread of Jacobin principles with the
influence of secret societies, were the sure forerunners of the revolutionary convulsions whichfollowed.
1774 Edicts for preventing the corrupt administration of justice.
Filangieri fl.
" Scienza della Legislazione,” d. 1788.
1791 Peace of Szistova with the Porte.
1766	Insurrection in Madrid—Squilaci forced to retire.
1700 Ministry of Aranda (till 1773) and Campomanes. Reforms and improvements : agricultural colonies settled on waste lands.
1767	Expulsion of the Jesuits.
1769Disputes with England relative to the Falkland islands, which are finally ceded to Eng-by treaty, 1771.
1774	Unsuccessful attack on Algiers—War with Morocco : Ceuta and Melilla besieged (1775) by the Moors.
1775-92 Ministry of Florida-Blwnca, honest and patriotic.
1775	Hostilities with Portugal in S. America-final capture of Nova Colonia.
1782 The Inquisition abolished in Parma and Naples.
1783 Great earthquakes in Calabria and Messina.
1770
1784 Ministry of Acton, the favourite of the queen Caroline.
Fresh regulations for the government and trade of South America—[see America.]
1778 Pacification of St. Ildefonso with Portugal:
American boundaries finally settled: Nova Colonia ceded to Spain : consequent increase of trade in Spanish South America from the prevention of smuggling.
1778 Unsuccessful offers of mediation between England and America— hence
1779-83 War with England.
1779-82 Unsuccessful siege of Gibraltar, defended by general Elliot—1780 Naval defeat of
pnlsed with great slaughter: r lieved by Howe.
French and Spaniards.
1781	Conquest of Florida from the English: invasion of Minorca by a French and Spanish armament; conquered, 1782.
1782	Treaty of amity and commerce with the Porte
—the first with any Moslem power.
1788 The feudal subjection of the kingdom to the papal see annulled.
Ferdinand III., 1790-1824, (second son of Leopold.)
Ver-
1783 Peace
■allies [see France.]
1783-4 Two unsuccessful expeditions against Algiers—Peace, 1786.
£20,000,000 was added to the Spanish debt by the late war, and her navy almost destroyed.
Charles IV., son, 1788-1808.
1780 Assembly of the Cortes, at which is said to have taken place the secret abrogation of the Salic law, by which Isabella II. has succeeded.
Cabals against Florida-Blanca set on foot by the profligate queen, and her paramour, Don Manuel Godoy.
1791 Cession of Oran to the Moors.
1780
1790
1792
46
48 Continuation of Table xvi. SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Eighteenth
GREATNESS OF PRUSSIA—FREDERIC THE GREAT. FIRST PARTITION OF POLAND.
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
Popes and Church History.
Benedict XIV. —1758,
revered throughout Europe for piety and learning.
Christianity begins to be attacked by the phUotophcrt and encyclopedists in France: Voltaire, d’Alembert, Ronssean, Helve-tius, Diderot (the advocate of materialism), etc. Publication of the Dlctlonnaire da VEncyclopedia, 1750.
1753 Concordat with Spain :
the Pope cedes to the king the right of presenting to all benefices except fifty, two, on the receipt of a gross sum of 1,200,000 crowns.
Disputes on the bull Unigenitus still continues in France. In an assembly of clergy (1755) fifteen French bishops declared the refusing it to be a mortal sin I 1755 The Jesuits in Spain and Portugal banished from court.
An Auto-da-fe in Lisbon: Jews burnt ilive in consequence of the earthquake, o atone for the sins of the people I
Clement XIII. (Rezzonico), 1758-69.
1759 The work of Helvetius, entitled De PEsprit, (published 1758) condemned and prohibited by a Letter-Apostolic.
Expulsion of the Jesuits from Portugal—breach of Portugal with Rome.
1761 Louis XV. in vain demands of the Pope the suppression of the Jesuits — banished from France, 1764.
Bull “ Apostolicum " approving the order of Jesuits.
1767	The Jesuits arrested throughout Spain and deported to Italy.
1768	Disputes with Parma, and the other Bourbon courts, on the restraints imposed on ecclesiastical jurisdiction — Jesuits expelled from Naples.
1709 The Pope dies suddenly, the night before a Consistory in which the sup-----'on of the Jesuits waa to have been
Prussia.
Clement XIV. ( Ganganelli), 1769-75.
1770 Reconciliation with Portugal — Discontinuance of the annual publication of the bull “ In Coen& Domini.”
Increasing reclamations of the Bourbon courts against the Jesuits.
1773	Suppression of the Jesuits by a papal brief, July 21.
The Pope said, on signing it, “ But this suppression will prove my death.”
1774	Restoration of civil rights to the French Protestants.
1775 Death of Clement XIV., supposed “ have been poisoned by the agents of e Jesnits.
Rapid diminution of the power and privileges of the church by the progress of reform in some countries, and of revolution in others: the nepotism and imprudent prodigality of Braschi lost the respect which Clement XIV. had gained for the holy
Frederic II. (the Great), —1786.
The events of the late war had elevated Prussia Into a leading power, not only in Germany, but in Europe, and from the jealonsy thus ronaed resulted Seven Years’ War.
1752 Disputes with Hanover relative to East-Friesland. Settlement of Prussian Pomerania with French Protestants and other emigrants.
Alliance with England for the maintenance of the German system—invasion of Saxony.
1757	Russian invasion of Prussia: battle of Gross-Jagersdorff— Prussia in the hands of the Russians till 1762.
Silesia secured by the victory of Leuthen over the Austrians.
1758	Victory of Zomdorf over the Russians—defeat of Hoch-kirchen by Daun: but Silesia still held.
1759	Great defeat of the king at Kunneredorf by the Russians.
1760	Victory of the king at Liegnitz—Berlin taken by the Russians and Austrians—defensive war 1762.
1762 Peace with Russia and Sweden after the death of Elizabeth — victory over the Austrians at Burkersdorf in Silesia.
The country wasted by the Seven
1768 Peace of Hubertsburg with Austria and the Empire:
Silesia finally ceded to Prussia: general restoration as before the war. m
Denmark.
Sweden.
Years' War, is
1764	Alliance with Russia— mutual defence, mutual guarantees. Secret articles relative to Poland.
restored by the
1765	The bank of Berlin established.
great care and activity of the king, who encourages new settlers, manufactures, and agriculture. 1772
Polish-Prusaia, except Dantzic and Thorn, and Great Poland as far as the Netze, to Prussia.
Frederic V.
—1766.
1751-70 Ministiy of count Bemstorffthe elder.
Manufactures, trade, and 1752 Publication of a code of naval laws.
agriculture A supreme court of justice for Schles-wick and Holstein erected at Gluck-stadt
encouraged:
increasing prosperity: the finances reformed by Schimelmann, and the army by Germain: he crown debts paid, an army of 40,000 men, and a fleet of thirty men-of-war.
Neutral in the Seven Years’ War.
1762 Threatened war with Russia, averted by an adjustment.
Frederic of Hesse-Cassel, —1751.
Christiern VII., son, 1766-1808.
Abolition of villeinage, and gradual emancipation of the 6erfs.
1768 Travels of the king in Prussia,
France, England, etc.
1770 Dismissal of Bemstorff — ministry of Struensee, the favourite of the queen, Caroline Matilda, of England. riBST	PABTITIOV
Rash and injudicious
Oottorp, 1751-1018.
Adolphus Frederic, 1751-71.
Swears to the Constitution of 1720.
The power of the king reduced to nothing: the executive power solely with te, the legislative with the diet of the four orders.
1756	Execution of count Brahe, baron Horn, and six other nobles, on suspicion of having advised the king to make himself absolute.
1757	Sweden joins in the Seven Years’ War against Prussia, thro’ the influence of the Hats, or French party, and against the will of the king.
Fruitless invasion of Prussian Pomerania.
1762 Peace of Hamburg with Prussia. The Caps gain ascendency in the diet through the influence of the English and Russian ambassadors.
1766 The press declared free.
Poland.
Frederic Augustus II. —1768. Elector of Saxony.
1756 The king flees from Saxony on the invasion of the Prussians, and continues at Warsaw till the peace of 1763.
1768	The king, by a threat of abdication, extorts from the senate the convocation of an extraordinary diet, in which the Hats regain the ascendant.
1769	The Caps again procure the enforcement of the restrictions of 1720.
Gustavus III., son, 1771-92.
1758 A Russian army of observation in Poland.
1764 Diet of Election :
vention between Russia and Prussia for the election of native Pole.
Stanislaus Ponia-TOfxi, 1764-95.
Elected under the control of n army, which con-occupy the country.

Russia.
Elizabeth, —1762.
Ministry of the chancellor count Be-stuchef-Riumin, till 1758.
1757	Russia led into the Seven Years’ War by her alliance with Austria and Saxony—Invasion of Prussia—victory of Gross-Jagersdorff.
1758	Army of observation in Poland— Dissensions at court, from the opposition of the grand-duke Peter to the war.
1759	Signal victory of Soltikof over the king of Prussia at Kunneredorf.
1760	Berlin taken by the Russians and Austrians.
Russia gains nothing by this war, but establishes the fame of hex arms in the west.
Bouse of Holsteln-Oottorp.
Peter III., nephew, 1762—six months. 1762 Abandons the Austrians—peace and alliance with Prussia—offends the clergy by confiscating church property, and the army by attempting to introduce Prussian discipline—deposed by a revolt: dies a few days after (murdered?)
Catharine II., widow of Peter, 1762-96. Neutrality in the Seven Years’ War— ministry of Gregory Orloff; and Panin in foreign affairs.
1764 Death of Ivan—election of Ponia-tofki, paramour of Catharine, to the Polish throne.
The administration of church property vested in a colleqb, or Board of Commissioners: the clergy paid by fixed salaries.
1766	Claims of the Dissidents to equality of privileges, supported by Catharine; unsuccessful.
1767	Confederation of the Dissidents under Radzivil at Radom.
Diet of Warsaw : the claims of the Dissidents carried by force.
1768 Counter-confederation of the patriots at BaT, under Krazin9ki, Potofki, and Pulaski, supported by the Porte: for the dethronement of the king and expulsion of the Russians.
1767 Project for a general code of laws.
1768-71 Civil war between the patriots and the Russians—Poland horribly devastated. 1771 A Prussian army joins the Russians.
1768-74 War with the Porte: three armies—on the Dniester, Caucasus, and Crim Tart ary: fleets in the Black sea and Mediterranean.
1771 Plague and iras Gaiutzln takes Choc-riots in Moscow. *'m‘
POIAVOH
1770 Naval victory of Tcheame — conquest of Moldavia and Walachia.
Pius VI. (Braschi), 1775-99.
1780	Abolition of the inquisition in Modena.
1781	Joseph II. abolishes the japal jurisdiction in the Austrian states—dissolves the monasteries, 1782—the Pope journeys to Vienna to remonstrate against these changes, but without effect.
1782 Draining of the Pontine marahea. Progress of irfidelity, of the deistical sect Theo-philanthro-pists, and the Martinistes, a branch of the illumines, France.
1785 Ordination of Dr. Seabnry, bishop of Connecticut, by five non-juring Scotch bishops.
1784 The English archbishops aUowed by parliament to ordain American bishops without the oath of allegiance—bishops of Philadelphia and New York ordained 1787.
1790	Monastic vows prohibited in France.
1791	The oath required of the French clergy to the new constitution is refused by nearly all—the recusants are expelled from their benefices; and compelled to quit France, 1792.
1792	Confiscation of church pro-jerty in France, Belgium, and 3avoy.
1778 War with Austria on the question of the Bohemian succession—invasion of Bohemia— peace of Teschen 1779.
1781 Joins the Armed Neutrality.
1785 Confederation of the German Princes against the exchange of Bavaria, concluded at Berlin under the influence of Prussia — Saxony, Brunswick, Mentz, Hesse-Cassel, Mecklenburg, Anhalt, etc.
Prussia the support of the German constitution.
The Prussian monarchy
Frederic William II., nephew, 1786-97. loses its mainspring in
1787	Expedition to quell the troubles in Holland.
Frederic the Great:
1788	Alliance with England and Holland: defensive with the former, and to guarantee the stadtholdership in the latter.
Edicts against Jacobinism and revolutionary tenets.
in the profuse and
1790	Alliance with the Porte and Poland.
irresolute rule of his Convention with Austria England for the settlement of Belgium.
successor may be traced
1791	Conference of Pillnitz with Leopold II. and the elector of Saxony on French affairs
gains Ansprach and Baireuth.
the germ of its New system of jurisprudence. future disasters.
Prussian army 200,000 men.
reforms: liberty of the press.
1772	Revolution at court, headed by the dowager-queen Juliana Maria—Stru-ensce and Brandt beheaded — queen Caroline divorced and imprisoned, dies 1775—Guldenburg minister, till 1784.
1773	Exchange of Holstein for Oldenburg and Delmen-horst.
1772 The king, supported by the army and the people, overthrows the constitution of 1720, and compels the senate to abdicate their power.
New Constitution :
fixing the relative powers of the king and the other orders nearly as in 1680—the party names of Hatt and Caps prohibited—torture abolished in judicial proceedings.
1775 Brandy a royal mo-
1777 Visit of the king to Catharine II. at Petersburg.
1773 The diet compelled to ratify the partition.
1775 Reform of the constitution, guaranteed by Russia—
Right of election and liberum veto confirmed—Permanent Council of thirty-eight, nnder the presidency of the king—the Dieeidente abandoned by Russia as no longer useful — the virtual
the territory between 1771 Conquest of Azoph the Dwina, Dnieper, and Crim Tartary. and Drntsch, to Russia.	, .
1773	Alliance with »» F r"P^e * ‘he
Denmark,	Danube by Roman toff.
Revoit of the cossack 1774 Rotnanloff again Pugatscbeff, who per- crosses the Danube, and sonatestbe czar Peter: Mrroond, ,he vizier’s taken and broken on army near ghumla. the wheel, 1775.
1774	Peace of Kutchuh-Kainardji with the Porte,
which cedes Azoph, Yenl-kall. Kll-bournou, and Kertsch; the steppes between the Bog and the Dnieper, and the free navigation of the Black sea and declares the Crim Tartars independent
1776 Division of the empire into governments : 200 new towns.
1778-91 Ministry of Potemkin, a former paramour of Catharine.
1779 Russia guarantees the peace of Teschen in Germany.
1784 The prince-royal joined in the government with the imbecile king— ministry of Bern-storff the younger, tiU 1797.
1778 War with Sweden, from the alliance with Russia.
Invasion of Sweden by a Norwegian army : siege of Got-tenburg.
1789 Armistice with Sweden by British mediation.
1792 Opening of a canal between the northern and eastern seas.
Denmark neutral in affairs of France.
1787	A French ambassador in Warsaw — the first during the reign of Stanislaus.
1788	Poland prevented by the reclamations of Prussia from
1780 Declaration of the Armed Neutrality, for the protection of neutral flags against the right of maritime search claimed by England—-joined by Denmark and Sweden—Prussia and Austria 1711—Portugal 1782.
1782 The Jesuits in Russis
1783 Occupation of Crim Tartary—He-raclius prince of Georgia puts himself under the protection of Russia.
imninir Fleet in the Black Sea: eecret project for joining fmmdi a Greek empirti m the ruin,
Russia against the the Porte, ’	" ’	............
Porte.
1788-91 The last general diet —abolition of the Permanent Council.
1790	Treaty with Prussia through the influence of the anti-Russian party — Poland frees itself from Russian guardianship, and reassumes the attitude of a sovereign state.
1791	New Constitution of May 3, guaranteed by Prussia.
The crown hereditary in the electoral house of Saxony: the liberum veto abolished : the king and council executive : legislative diet in
1783 Commercial treaty with the United States.
1788	War with Russia in aid of the Porte; and with Denmark as an ally of Russia.
Revolt of the Swedish officers at Frederick-sham, refusing vade Russia without orders from the States.
1789	Act of Union and Safety passed by the other orders in the diet in spite of the opposition of the nobles, giving the king absolute power of war and peace, and abolishing the senate.
1790	Unsuccessful attempt to seize Petersburg — naval defeat off Vlborg, July 3— Naval victory ofSvenkasund, July 10: 42 Russian ships and 4000 men destroyed.
Peace of Werela:
Mutual restoration: Russia acknowledges the reformed constitution.
1792 Defensive alliance with Russia against France.
The king assassinated by Ankarstrou, a tool of the discontented nobility.
Gustavus IV., son, 1792-1809.
Regency of the duke of Su-dermania, unde to the king — with Fra nee abandoned
1792 Confederation of Targowitz for maintaining the old consti-tion—invasion by the Russians—useless re-sistence by Kosciusko, Poniatofki, etc.—the king joins the confederacy at Targowitz.
The JVew Constitution overthrown.
1786	Bank of Petersburg established — the army
264.000	men —commercial treaties: with Denmark 1782; Austria 1785; France 1787; all on the principles of the Armed Neutrality.
1787	Journey of Catharine to Taurida, and interview with Joseph II., hence
1787-92 War (in alliance with Austria, 1788,J against the Porte.
1788	Choczim taken by Coburg—Ocza-kow stormed by Potemkin, Dec. 17 :
40.000	Turks killed!—1789 Victories of Suwarow in Moldavia—Bender taken by Potemkin—1.790 Ismail taken by Suwarow, 45,000 slain!
War with Sweden, 1788-90.
1790	Naval battle with the Swedes, who threaten Petersburg—Peace of Werela.
1791	Alliance with Sweden to oppose the revolution in France.
1792	Peace of Yassi with the Porte:
Acquisition of Oczacow and the territory between the Bog and the Dniester: foundation of Odessa.
Poland occupied by the army withdrawn from the Turkish war.
The new internal organization of Catharine renders the government completely despotic, and increases the power of the empire by rendering its vast resources more efficient and available.
b
c
d
e
f
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
49
BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA. INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
Ottoman Empire.
Persia. Cabul,&c.
India.
China.
America.
Mahmood I. -1754. Abdul-Wahhab, founder of the Wahhabi sect Encroachments of Russia on Crim Tartary.
Othman III., brother, 1754-7.
1755	First Prussian embassy to Constantinople —first Turkish embassy to Berlin, 1763.
Great mosque of Noor-Othmani founded.
1756	French influence declines, from her alliance with Austria.
80,000 booses destroyed at Constantinople by a fire.
Mustapha III., 1757-74, first cousin, son of Ahhmed III.
1757-62 Ministry of Mohammed Raghib Pasha—
cultivation qf literature—the Attronomical Tablet qf
Shah Rokh -1751, dethroned and
blinded.
Anarchy till the
sovereignty
Ahmed
Shah
Doorani,
-1773.
Native Powers. Europeans.
1753 Conquest of Cashmire, &c.
The French supreme in the Dekkin and Carnatic, 1745-57, under
La Bourdonnais and Dupleix. 1755-65
Flourishing state of Commerce and Finances.
E8YPT.
Revival of the power of the Mamelukes under Rodoan, and Ali Bey, who makes himself independent in Egypt, 1766, and conquers Syria, 1771.
The discipline of the troops and artillery improved by Baron de Tott.
1768-74 War with Russia, in behalf of Poland.
Hie Turks under the Tartar khan Krim Gherai (poisoned, 1700) cross the Dneister on the ice, and drive the Russians out of New Servia.
700 Indecisive campaign on the Dneister—Choczim taken by Gallitzin.
1770 Defeat of Kahoul—Loss of Bender, Moldavia, and Walachia—the Turks driven across the Danube.
1770	Revolt of the Moreote Greeks, under Benakhi and Papas-Oghli, suppressed.
Destruction of the Turkish fleet by Orloff at Tchesme.
Exploits of the Turkish hero Ghazi-Hussan pasha.
1771	Loss of Azoph and of Crim Tartary—Lines of Shumla fortified by Hassan pasha.
1772	Conferences of Bucharest; unsuccessful mediation of Austria.
1773	The Russians first cross the Danube, but are defeated and driven back by Ghazi-Hassan.
1773 Ali Bey deposed by his adopted son, Mohammed Abou-Dahab: dies of his wounds— Egypt and Syria again subject to the Porte.
Abdul-Hamid, brother, 1774-89.
1774	The Russians cross the Danube—panic and rout of the Turks.
Peace of Kutchuk-Kainardji, 1774 [see Russia]. 1776 Cession of the Buckowina to Austria.
The Porte henceforth oinks
1780 Progress of the Wahhabi sect in Arabia and Irak.
Into a defensive policy.
1783 Troubles in Crim Tartary—
The last khan, Shahin Gherai, deposed, and the country seized by Russia—the Porte obliged to ratify the transfer, 1784: but most of the Tartars abandon their country.
11786 Revolt of the Mamelukes under Ibrahim and Mourad Bey | —repressed by Ghazi-Hassan.
1787-92 War with Russia: and with Austria, 1788-92.
1787	Unsuccessful invasion of Crim Tartary: naval defeat off the Dneiper.
1788	Victory over Joseph II. at Lugosch: invasion of Hungary—capture of Choczim and Oc-zakow (40,000 men killed) by the Russians.
Selim II., son of Mustapha III., 1789-1807.
1789	Defeats in Walachia by the Austrians and Russians, who take Belgrade and Bender— death of Ghazi-Hassan.
1790	Alliance with Prussia—Ismail taken by Suwarow, 45,000 Turks killed 1
1791	Peace of Szistova with Austria—of Yassi with Russia, 1792, with new losses.
1792-1800 Revolt of Osman-Paswan-Ogli, pasha of Widdin, who possesses himself of all the country between the Balkan and the Danube.
1792	Organisation of new regiments disciplined in the European manner.
by
Kherim khanZund, 1759-79— rules by the title of Wakeel, or regent— Shiraz seat of government.
1761 The Euglisb abandon their factory at Gombroon, but afterwards establish
Ahmed Shah, emperor of Delhi,
-1753.
Contentions of the vizier Seifdar Jung, and the emir-al-omrah, Ghazi-o-deen, grandson of Nizam-al-Mulk— end in the deposition of the emperor.
Alemghir II., son of Jehandar Shah, 1753-60.
1756 Invades India: and takes sacks Delhi.
1756	Calcutta taken by the nawab of Bengal—imprisonment of the garrison
in the Black Hole.
1757	Victory of Plaaaey by the
English over the nawab of Bengal —foundation of the British supremacy. 1759 Victoiy over the Mahrattas
under Holkar.	°* ft
1760 Alemghir put 1757-61 Lally, to death by Ghazi- governor of Pondi-o-deen.	cherry.
Shah Alim II., 1760-1 Siege and son, 1760-1806. capture of Pondi-
Kien-
Lono,
-1796.
1752
Acqui-
sition
of
North
Thibet.
1761
Rebellion and death of ’ Mohammed Hussein, father of Aga Mohammed.
1761 Swims the Indus with his whole army,and utterly routs the Mahrattas under the Bhow at Paniput; 60,000 killed, and 20,000 prisoners.
1762-!
cherry by the English.
Incursions of the Seiks in the Punjab.
1767 Great victory over the Seiks.
KINGDOM OF MYSORE, the nawab of Onde— 1760-99, English supremacy founded by	eetdblUlwd in centra
Hyder Ali,
1760-82.	after a
1765 Treaty qf Allahabad:
Wars 1768 Invasion of Kho-rassan by Nassir-allah, son of Shah Rokh— defeated at Meshed by the Dooranis. with the Turk-
and
Arabs.
1775 Invasion of Irak
Timur
Shah,
son,
1773-93, tranquil and indolent.
taken from the Turks— restored 1779.
1779 Death of Kherim khan— Fresh troubles : Aga Mohammed khan independent in Mazan-deran. Aboul Fatteh,
1779-	80. Saduk Kiian,
1780-	1. Ali
Mourad,
1781-	4. 1783
Georgia places itself under the protection of Russia. Jaafar Khan, 1784-8.
Seid Mourad, 1788-9. Lutf Ali Khan, 1789-95, of the Zund family. 1791 Defeated by Aga Mohammed.
1781
Victory at Moultan over the Seiks, who are driven from the Punjab.
1788 War with the Usbek Shah' Murad Bey of Bokhara.
ten years’ war.
1767	Confederacy of the English, the Mahrattas, and the Nizam, against Hyder Ali.
1768	The Nizam deserts the English, and concludes a separate peace.
1769	Hyder advances to Madras— peace—conquests mutually restored.
1769 Hyder re- c3U£%Si.,
pulses the Mah- governor of Bengal rattas under Madoo m?dc. governor-gene-Rao from before
Seringapatam. Mated by a supreme 1769-79 Coorg, f°»“cil: high court ' . o’ judicature erected— Lalicut, and nearly director* to hold their the whole of Mala- Mat4 °n|yf0Br ye»n-bar subdued in
succession by Warrbn Hastings, Hvder
3	’	first British governor-
general.
1774-82 War between the English and Mahrattas—at first unfavourable to the former.
1778 Pondicherry taken by the English —retained till 1783. 1780 Second war qf the English with Mysore—Hyder desolates the Carnatic up to the gates of Madras.
1780 Unsuccessful march of Goddard against the Mahratta capital Poonah— capture of Gwalior by Popham. 1780-1 Invasion of Mysore by the English under sir Eyre Coote—victories of Hyder over Baillie and Brathwaite.
1782	Peace and alliance with the Mahrattas—Rise of Sindia, who disciplines his forces in the European manner.
Tippoo Sultan,
1782-99.
1783	The French under Bussy and Suffrein in alliance with Tippoo— Cuddalore taken by the English.
1784	The French separate from Tippoo on the peace of Versailles—Peace between Tippoo and the English-conquests mutually restored.
1785	Sindia be- 1784 Establishment comes master of of the Board of Delhi and pro- Control in Eng-
1760 The Eleuths completely subdued : but 20000 families migrate to Russia.
1764 Revolt of the White-caps, or converts to Mohammedanism— repressed.
Extension
and
1767-73 Unsuccessful war with Birmah & Cochin-China.
influence
of
1770 War with the Miao-ts£, or mountaineers— subdued 1776, but they have continued turbulent ever since.
secret
societies.
1771-2 Emigration of the whole Tour-gouth nation from the coast of the Caspian to China.
South.
West Indies & Mbxico.
1751 Disorders in Paraguay from the exchange of the Jesuit Reductions.
1755	Emancipation of the natives qf Brazil.
1756	Incorporation of the Maranham Company, and of the Pernambuco Company, 1759,for trade to those provinces—the rest of of the Brazilian trade thrown open.
1761 Compact for the exchange of the Reductions annulled— hence fresh disputes of Spain and Portugal. 1762-3 War between Spain and England: conquest of Havanna and Trinidad from Spain, and Martinico from France.
North.
Popnlation of the English colonies, 1,046,000-
1750-4 Disputes between France and England on the boundaries of Nova Scotia.
Discoveries of Franklin.
1754 Major Washington with a small body of militia repulses a superior French force.
1754	Congress of delegates from seven colonies, at Albany, against the French encroachments.
1755	Hostilities: Monckton conquers Nova Scotia—Braddock cut off in an expedition against fort du Quesne.
1756	War declared: invasion by the French from Canada.
1757	Fort William-Henry taken by the French.
1758	Cape Breton taken by the Engl.
1759	Invasion of Canada: victory and death of Wolfe on the heights of Abraham : Quebec taken.
1759	Capture of Niagara, Crownpoint, and Ticonderoga, by the English.
1760	Conquest of Canada.
1763 Peace of Paris: see England and France.
The British parliament attempts to tax the unrepresented colonies for the expenses of the war—hence 1765 American Stamp Act: resisted in Massachussets, Virginia, &c.
First Colonial Congress, at New-York —the Stamp Act repealed, 1766: but the right of taxation by parliament expressly asserted.
1767 Fresh taxes: on importation of glass, paper, tea, &c.—Boston occupied by British troops.
1769	Non-importation resolutions entered into by all the colonies.
1770	Affrays with the troops at Boston, and loss of life—abolition ofthe duties, except on tea.
1773	Riots at Boston: three cargoes of tea thrown into the sea.
1774	Canadian Constitution—full toleration to the Catholics.
1774	The port of Boston closed by order of parliament.
Congress at Philadelphia i
Declaration of Rights: Revolutionary War, 1775-83.
1775	Skinnish of Lexington—battle of Bunker’s hill—invasion of Canada by the Americans under Montgomery.
American commander-in-cb.
1776	Capture of Boston by the Americans—indecisive battle ofWhite Plains. Declaration of Independence of
tbe United States, July I.
1777	Lafayette in America—Philadelphia taken by the English—surrender of Burgoyne’s army at Saratoga to Gen. Gates.
Articles qf confederation adopted.
1778	Alliance with France concluded by Franklin—French fleet under d’Estaing—Philadelphia recovered.
1779-80 Successes of the British in the southern states—success of the American privateers at sea.
1780	French fleet and army under Rochambeau in America.
1781	Cornwallis and his army capitulate at York town to the Americans, and the fleet to the French.
1782	Treaty of the United States with Holland.
1750
1760
1780 Fresh conquests in Thibet —the empire extended to the Himma-lah.
Gradual relaxations by Spain
1767-71 War in Mexico with the Californian Indians—discover of the gold mines of Sonora & Analoa.
of the restrictions upon intercourse with America:
1774 The trade of the Spanish American colonies among themselves thrown open.
consequent advance of the colonies
1777 The colony of St. Sagramento finally ceded by Portugal to Spain.
in knowledge and refinement.
1777	Buenos Ayres made a fourth vice-royalty—1. Peru. 2.
New-Spain (Mexico).
3. Quito and New Granada. 4. Buenos Ayres.
1778	Diminution of duties in the Spauish colonies by a new tariff: still further lowered 1784.
1779	Free trade from Spain extended to Chili, Peru, Buenos Ayres,and Guatimala.
1780	Revolt of the native Peruvians under the Inca Tupac-Amaru — siege of Cuzco by the insurgents—repressed
1782, and Tupac-Amaru put to death.
1783 Peace of Versailles I Britain acknowledge* the independence qf the United State*: restore* Tobago to France, and Florida to Spain.
1770
1780
tector of the Mogul emperor, who continues a Mahratta pensioner till 1803.
1786 Tippoo’s lower consolidated
land for the regulation of the Company’s administration, and for keeping it subject to the general government.
by the failure of a J combined attack MahqdisCobnwallis, by foe Nizam end the Mahrattas.
1790 War with Tippoo from his aggressions on Travancore—invasion of Mysore, in conjunction with the Mahrattas, 1791—attack on Seringapatam, 1792—Peace; Tippoo cedes half his dominions.
Sir John Shorb, governor-general, 1792-8.
1792-3 Lord Macartney’s embassy for the regulation of British trade— ineffectual.
1784	Sweden acquires the island of Bartholomew from France.
1785	Philippine Company formed in Spain on the ruin of the Caraccas Company, to trade with Manilla by way of Peru—languid in operation.
1780 Settlement of Sierra Leone in Africa, chiefly by the negroes of the emigrant American royalists.
1788 Commencement of the efforts in England for the abolition of the slave trade— Societe des Amis des Noirs in Palis.
1791 Revolt of mulattos and negroes in St. Domingo—Port au Prince burnt.
National debt of the United Sutes £9,000,000.
1786	Convention at Annapolis for settling the government.
1787	General Convention at Philadelphia (under the presidency of Wash-ingtonj/romes the
^Federal Constitution of Americai
‘ a free democracy: Government in a president and vice-president, elected for fonr years by universal suffrage—all legislative powers in congress, or two houses of representaUves, chosen every two years by universal suffrage. Power in one supreme court appointed by congress. Religion, no establishment. Rill toleration. Freedom of speech and of the press—trial by Jury—right of every citizen to petition and bear arms.
1788 Cotton frit planted in Georgia.
1789	The Constitution ratified, except by Rhode island and North Carolina.
1789 George Washington, first president.
John Adams, vice-president Cabinet, Jefferson, Knox, Hamilton, Randolph, Jay.
Parties of the Federalists if Democrats.
1790	The national debt funded.
Death qf Franklin.
1791	Vermont admitted into the Union and Kentucky, 1792.
United Sutes’ Bank—capital, 10,000,000 dollars.
1791 Defeat of general St Clair by the Indians.___________________________
~	f
1790
1792
50 Table xvii.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Nineteenth
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR-BUONAPARTE-NELSON-WELLINGTON.
1793
France.
Great Britain.
Boom of Brunswick—George III. -1820.
1790-92 Third tear with Tippoo Saib. Fruitless embassy to China, Lord Macartney. 1792 Convention of Reichenbach with Austria and Prussia.
Question of the Regency.	Alien Act, 1793.
The French Convention declares war, Feb. 1, 1793.
Successes of the Austrians at Aldenhoven and Neerwin-ie Net '	1 -------
1795
The French Revolution, 1789-99. The French Ikepublle.
National Convention, Sept. 21, 1792—Oct. 26, 1795.
Decree of fraternisation, offering assistance to all nations struggling for freedom.
King brought to trial—executed Jan. 2\, 1793. War against England, Holland, Spain: con-he party of the Mountain, headed by Robespierre, and the quest of the Austrian Netherlands by Du-facobin clubs, prevail over the Girondists (or moderates)—	mourier—occupation of Savoy and Nice,
assassination of Marat.	r	J
1793 First Coalition affalnat France i directed bj England,
who forms alliances with Russia, March 25—Sardinia, April 25—Spain, May 25—Naples, July 12—Prussia, July 14—Austria, Aug. 30—Portugal, Sept. 29—Tuscany, Oct. 28—
besides subsidiary treaties with several German princes: namely, all Europe except Sweden, Denmark, and Turkey.	Tobago captured—Pondicherry.
Duke of York and prince of Saxe-Cobuig reduce Valenciennes and Condi, but are foiled at Dunkirk—victoiy of the duke of York at Toumay,1794.
Great efforts made to maintain the dominion of the sea.
1794 Treaty with the United States of America. Toulon surrenders, and the French fleet carried off —	.	. „ „ ,	, ... ,	or destroyed—Buonaparte commands the "*
Prussia and Holland subsidised*	publican artillery, the fir*t *cene cf hit glory.
1795 War with Holland: capture of its colonies:
Ceylon, Malacca, and their establishments on the Malabar coast—the Cape of Good Hope. Marriage of p. of Wales with Caroline of Bruns. Naval victories: of Howe at Ushant, Junel, Warren Hastings' trial, 149 days—cost 470,000.	1794—at Savona by Hothain, 1796.
1796 Dementia, Essequibo-the Moluccas captured. ^ent by Bridport-Hieres islands.
1796 War With Spain—Trinidad capt., 1797. Martinique, Guadeloupe, and 8t. Lucia captured. Discontents In Ireland from 1794—attempt of the Corsica, by lord Hood.
French upon it, 1796, under gen. Hoche, with 18,000 1795 Pellew takes fifteen and burns seven, out ol men, fortunately fails-Napper Tandy.	fleet of thiity-five transports.
Great dread of French invasion.	Saldan ha bay over the Dutch byElphli
1796 Princess Charlotte born.	At Campetdown by Duncan, 1797.
1797 Suspension qfcash payments. Cape St. Vincent by Jervis, 1797.
Mutiny at the Nore, suppressed in June—Riots in Scotland—vain negotiations for peace by lord Malmsbury—Commercial treaty with Russia.
1790 Irish Rebellion: society of Unit
Reign Of Terror, May 1793, to July 1791—revolutionary tribunal—temple of reason—the people murdered in masses —civil war in Vendee—forced loan of 1000,000,000 francs— execution of the queen, duke of Orleans, Bailly, Danton, etc. Committee of Public Safety: Robespierre, Camot, etc. with dictatorial power over life and property—Lyons declares against the National Convention—besieged and captured by the Republicans.
1794	Revolution qf the 9th Themudor (July 27)—Robespierre and twenty-one of his associetes guillotined.
End of the Reign qf Terror—1 acobin clubs suppressed. The Press declared free.	Tricolouredfag adopted.
1795	Third Constitution: the executive Directory,
live directors, corps legislative, council of 500, and council
retake Mayence, and invade Alsace. The Spaniards take Roussillon—
1791 Victoiy of Pichegru at Toumay—of Jourdan at Fleurus—the allies everywhere driven back—
France freed from enemies.
Basle—Sweden acknowledges the Republic—alliance with Holland—peace with Spain.
five directors, corps legislative, council of 500, and council
of ancients, fco members. Forced loan, 6W.00W 1796 Celebrated campaign of Buonaparte ii
Rta* ftf tb* mnoliafs saw fifth* PfiFiaian Iprtlfini. Hl.flnO in.	. «	.	« ««	. 1 r» 1 *
Italy
Peace qfCampoFormio-Cong. of Rastadt till 1799. 1798 Buonaparte's expedition to Egypt, with 30,000 men—Malta occupied—war with Turkey.
hlnstone, 1796.
Wise government of the Directory, who 1797 Buonaparte's Austrian campaign, pursue moderate measures, and wish to restore order. Belgium, Ionian isles, and Genoa acquired, 1798.
General amnesty.
1796	Alliance with Spain—negotiat. with England.
1797 Revolution of the 181A Fructidor (Sept, i)—three directors: the first step towards military government.
I79B Second Coalition against France t alliances of England <
1799	Maladministration of the Directory—France falling again into anarchy— .. .	.	vv-----..............- -j- ‘ TviS
Losses of the French in Italy-Piedmont taken possession of.	Expedition to Egypt	Warren, Oct. 12.-M.norca taken. 17W.
Return of Buonaparte—Revolution of 18<A Brumaire (Nov. 9.)	1799 Fourth war with Tippoo Saib.	Battle of the WUe, Aug. 1—Kelson—
Fourth Constitution ■ Buonaparte, (the new Cresar,) first consul; Cambacirea, second ; Le Brun, third—a conservative	, secures the dominion qf the Mediterranean.
senate and state councll-the'tegialative power in the tiibunal of It J, and the.corpslegisUxlif, of 300 members.	Fruitless attempt of the Russians and English 8urrender ofthe Dulch fleel at ^ Texel.
Talleyrand, foreign affairs; Fouche, police-municipal governments dissolved, and prefects appointed by the govern- upon Holland.	Capture of Malta, Sept. 5.
ment, which also*reserves to itself the initiative of ul bills in the legislative body—III* Republic In effect annihilated. |
1800	Buonaparte at the Tuilleries: the infernal machine—emigrants may return.	1800 Union of Rngland and Ireland 1 carried by the
1800 Glorious campaigns of Buonaparte In Italy (Marengo) May a to July 9.	parliament-Ireland to tend twenty-eight peer, and a hundred coma
Moreau in Germany—Hohenlinden.	Buonapartes letter to the lung for peace.
Russian ambassador at Paris.	-	* •----... .	. ,m, ■■	»-	-	■
it the country—send depu-
----------------------,........	-----r-----------v .cvcM/ra-Martial law-numeroui
engagements between the rebels and the king’s troops—general Humbert lands with a French force of 1150 men—defeated and captured—insurrection suppressed in Sept,—col. Burke and major Bellow executed.
oith Russia, Naples, Sicily, Turkey, and Austria—Prussia, Holland, and Belgium, neutral.
Income tax of 10 per cent. French armament, destined for Ireland, by adm.
1800
Peace of Luneville, Jan. 1, 1801: Peace of Campo Formio1	...	,	,	.
1 om a j .	a. it.	the basis-left bank of the Rhine, with Belgium, ceded to 1801 Armed Neutrality of the North, against the maritime laws qf England in
1801 Concordat with the rope vatnoiic ren- France—the Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian re-1 respect to neutral powers: joined by Russia, Sweden, Denmark—Peace of Petersburgh. /Mrtw o»a>»#as>*//	Dublics acknowledged.	*
-	-	-	• ■------j —j I	1802 Governor Wall executed.	Nelson destroys Danish fleet at Copenhagen, Ap. 2.
gion restored.

Peace with Portugal and Russia.
1802 Buonaparte president of the Italii
Convention
Peace of Amiens, 1802
Trinidad and Ceylon—integrity of the Turkish
_	,,. i .	,,	-	» ...	, Trinidad anti ueyton—integnty ottne luraisn empire 10 dc 1
Republics—he forsakes the cause of liberty,	guaranteed by France, Russia, Spain, and Prussia.
no»A f+n—s	tton* a**bm nnht tn pnnrjmlrn.t* nil vower r	... M	. .
(glorious for France) between England, France, Spain, and the Batavian republic. I f the Turkish empire to be preserved—Republic of the Ionian islands acknowledged by
Conditions: England restore* all conquests, except France—Malta to revert to the order, and its inde-
^hh^ifhavA^^^h^°0C^^lL7e^lpWeT England refuses to evacuate Malta—France takes possession of Piedmont—hence England declares war, May 18, 1803.
Consul for life_Legion of honour—army 600,000. British detenus at Verdun-the French take possession of Hanover, Holland, and Naples; threaten tc ’
Bank of France. I
War with Spain.
King again ill—recovers.
National debt £500,000,000.
Military force 615,000 men.
St Lucia reduced—Demerara, Essequibo, and Ber-‘ ~	1 -St.lioi
1803 Buonaparte mediator qf Switzerland.	1808 Expedition to St. Domi g.
1801 Conspiracy of George, and Pichegru against Buonaparte-(capt.Wright)-duA«<f Enghten seized and shot, March 21. | g03-5 New and successful war in India.
France replaces itself under the yoke which it had shaken off by such dreadful exertions.
VAPOUOH I., Bmperor of tbe French, 1808-14.
Crowned by the Pope at Paris—the republics created by France become monarchies, with new forms qf government.
Rupture with Russia and Sweden, who refuse to acknowledge the new imperial dignity.
1805 Buonaparte king of Italy.	...
1805 Third Coalition against France formed by England; alliances with Sweden, Russia, and Austria—Prussia unfortunately neutral.
1805	Austrian Campaign with the Grand Army—Buonaparte, and his generals Bemadotte, Marmont,
Davoust, Soult, Lannes, Ney, Augereau, Murat, St. Cyr, Maasena, etc. advance from victory to victory —Austerlitx, etc.—Peace qf Presburg: France acquires Venice and Dalmatia.
NAPOLEON PROTECTOR OF THE CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE.
1806	Bapoleon’S Federative System I Italy joined to the Great Empire—Murat, hereditary duke of Cleves—Joseph Buonaparte, k. of Naples and Sicily—Pauline Borghese, p. of Goastalla—Berthier, hered. prince of Neofckatel—Imperial Family Statute—Louis Napoleon, king of Holland.
Resolutions against the slave-trade. War with Turkey.
1805	Victory and death of Kelson at Trafalgar, Oct. 21-
English force, twenty-seven, the French, thirty-three sail of the line, etc.—CollingWOOd.
Sir Robert Calder’s victory off Ferrol.
Sir R. Strachan captures four French ships of the line, Nov. 4.
1806	Cape of Good Hope captured, Jan.
Sir T. Duckworth captures a French squadron off St.
Decree, and new English Orders in Council.	,1807 Duckworth forces the Dardanelles.	Atlack on Co^nhaKn. l^fore th^	of
Unsuccessful exped. against Egypt and Turkey.	» V? o
patlon of Erforth, Dantxic, and the Prussian fortresses	Acquisition of the Ionian islands.	... B ■	-	..	1800 C®yenne and Martinique taken,
of Stettin, Cnstrln, and Glogan.	\War with Russia.	Street gas-lights. Victory of loid Cochrane in the Basque reatH-four
1807 Publication ofthe Code Napoleon—the tribunate abolished—occupation of Spain, and treaty for the partition of ,1809 Peace with Turkey.	ships taken.
Portugal—Invasion of Portugal: Junol at Lisbon [sec Portugal]. 1806 New hereditary nobility—Treaty or "aY2J*ne: , Unfortunate exped. to Walcheren under Id. Chatham. Capture of the Ionian islands.
Joseph. Buon. k. of Spain—Congress of Erfurth: meeting of Alexander and Napoleon—Nap. in Spain till Jan., 1809.	|	Jubilee, fiftieth year ofthe king’s reign. 1810 Reduction of Guadeloupe, Isle of Bourbon, and
the Mauritius—the French without a single colony.
1806 Fourth Coalition against France i England, Russia, Prussia, Saxony, and Sweden.
___	_,	n and Warsaw.
1807 Battles of Eylan and Friedland—“ten days’cam-
Lisbon [see Portugal]. 1808 New hereditary nobility—Treaty orBa urth: meeting of Alexander and Napoleon—Nap. in Spain till Jan.,
1809 Fifth Coalition against France I England, Austria, Spain, and Portugal—
1809 Victory of Wagram—Peace of Vienna: the Illyrian provinces to Italy—divorce of Josephine. 1810 71,6 king’s malady returns-death ofthe p. Amelia. Embargo on British vessels in U. S. of N. America.
1810 Marriage of Buonaparte and Maria Louisa of Austria.	Peace idth Sweden :
Arbitrary government: Napoleon’s special and pre-	Rome, Holland, and the coasts of north Germany,
votal laws—restrictions on the press.	from Wesel to Lubeck, joined to France.
Tariff of Trianon, for colonial prod nee—Decree qf Fontainbleau, for burning all goods of British manufacture In France and her dependencies- Licensing System.	Continental peace, except with Spain.
18X2 Russian War I 500,000 men, the flower of the nations of Europe—Alliance with Austria and Prussia-
Great commercial panic in London—thirty to fifty bankrupts in every Gazette—WOO during the year. War with Sweden.	Amboyna, Banda, and Ternate, from the Dutch.
George IV., 1811, as prince Regent. Victory ofWP1’ Ho,te,in ,hf1Adr?atic- w
•»»»««•— *»“■'»Corn..SKKSBSi
1812-14 War with the United States.	64,517 prisoners of war in England.
England joins the alliance between Russia and Sweden.
Smoiciisko, Moscow, Berezina, etc.—of the Freuch army only 40,000 returned.
Mallet’s conspiracy frustrated-Buonaparte retnrns to Paris, Dec. 18.	n____
'	Napoleon repeals the Berlin and Milan Decrees.
1813 Sixth great Coalition against France, and general Insurrection ofthe nations of Burope against Frenoh dominion i
England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Austria after the Congress qf Prague, with 800,000 men; against France, Italy, the Confederation of the Rhine, and Denmark, with about 400,000 men. Victories of Lutzen—Bautzen—Dresden—Leipsic.	„	.	Hanover recovered.	1813 New charter to the E. India Company.
The dtthe of Wellington invade* France from Spain In OcL—the allies cross the Rhine, Dec. 6, compelling the French armies to retreat before	Custom-house destroyed by fire.
them-peace offered the Emperor, with the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees for boundaries.	/«.,•»„	................ ~	............................... ~
1814 Junction ofthe allied armies, 400,000 strong, in Champagne—victory of Blucher at Bnenne— Congress qfChatiUon, Feb; *nd ™.arcl| • an in' dependent throne still offered Nap.—victory of Blucher at Laon—Nap. repulsed at Arcis sur-l’Anbe—manouvres in the rear of the allies, threaten-.	r.. i—ju,j,,e leaving open the road to Paris; to which, after defeating Marmont and Mortier, they proceed—
-	■ "cation of afapoleon, April 2—retires to Blba.
lng to cat off their retreat to the Rhine, leaving open the
March 31, the Allies enter Paris—Abdlci
Bouse of Bourbon restored—Louis XVIII., -1821.
First Peace of Paris: England restores all tbe colonies she had taken from France, except Tobago, St. Locie, and the Isle of Prance— retains Malta—the exclusive protection of the Ionian isles. Boundaries of France as in 1792, with some addition on the side of savoy, and the possession of Avignon—French Guiana restored by Portugal.
June 4 The French Charter.	18X5 Buonaparte retnrns from Blba—the hundred days.
Declaration of the allies (all Europe) against Napoleon, 1,000,000 men—he takes the field against them—defeats Blucher at Ligny—but the Battle Of Waterloo, ( Wellington), June 18, decides his fate—Louis aud the allies enter Paris—Buonaparte banished to St. Helena.
First ministry—Talleybano.	Second ministry—Richelieu. ^
Second Peace of Paris: tbe northern and eastern frontier with eighteen fortresses to be occopied by 150,000 of the troops of the allies— France to pay a contribution of 700,000,000 francs—monnments of art to be restored.	Execution qf Ney.	.....
1818 Congress qf Aix-la-Chapelle—France joins the Holy Alliance—foreign troops withdrawn.
Third ministry—Dessoles.	1819 Fourth Ministry—Decazes—law in favour of the press.
1820 Assassination ofthe dnke de Berri by Lonvel—reaction against liberty—birth of the dnke of Bonrdeanx.
Treaty of Chaumont, Maroh 1, 1814, between Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain, against France.
Emperor of Russia, king of Prussia, etc. visit England.
Peace with America at Ghent.
1815 Riots in Loudon upon the passing ofthe Com Laws.
Disturbances in Paris.
Fifth Ministry— Richelieu—restrictions on the press—new law of elections.
1821 Death qf Napoleon, May 9—Military conspiracy at Sanmnr.
Sixth ministry—Villblx, 1822-28—still more retrograde—General discontent in France-Numerous conspiracies.
1823	Mannel exclnded from the Chamber of Deputies—War in Spain: duke of Angouleme, with 100,000 men.
1824 Septennial parliaments—censorship of the press, elc.	Army of France, 160,000—national guards, 650,000.
Charles X., brother, 1821-30.
Bigoted favourer of the old regime—of the Clergy and Jesuits.
I000,000,000f. indemn. to emigrants—law of sacrilege—reduction of interest— Haytiacknow.—Disajr«cHtin increases. 1827 The Parisian national guards dissolved for desiring the dismissal ofthe ministry—restraints on the press.
..... . - ------------------------..-------------------------------------.1 .
1838
Tioubles in Paris—foundation of the Society of Aid tc
Seventh ministry— Martionac.
upon the passing of the Com Laws.
Candy and the whole island of Ceylon captured.
1816	Income tax abolished.
Marriage ofthe princess Charlotte and Leopold, May 2.
1817	Riots in various parts of England ; increased by the agents of government —Oliver the spy—Spa-Aelds mob—Habeas Corpus Act suspended—Thistlewood, Watson, etc. tried and acquitted of high treason.
1817 Lord Exmouth's expedition to Algiers—captives set free— _	Christian slavery abolished.	Waterloo bridge opened.
llitf Death of the princess Charlotte, Nov. 6.	Resumption of cash payments.
Expedition to discover the North-West passage.	1819 Grant of £1,060,000 to build new churches.
1819 Disturbances in the manufacturing districts— Revival of a popular party—Burdett, Hunt, CobbetL
George IV., son, 1820-30.
1819 Cato-street conspiracy—1Thistlewood and his associates executed—many others imp. for sedition.
Bill qf Pains and Penalties against the queen.
1824	English troops defeated by the Ashantees. Great improvements in London—new Post-Oflice, etc.
War with the Burmese—Commercial treaty with Denmark.	Mechanics’ Institutions begun.
Convention with Austria, 42,500,000 received in full of all demands, amounting to £30,000,000.
1825	Acknowledgment of and treaties with the South American republics (Canning.)
Commercial treaty with Russia.
Commercial panic.
1826 Peace with the Burmese: tee India.
Thames tonne) began.
1827 Treaty qf London in favour qf Greece: between England, Russia, and France—battle of Navarmo—French expedition to the Morea.
1830 Eighth ministry Polio nac—parliament dissolved—Expedition to Algiers, 30,000 men under Bourmont.
July 26 Ordtmnaness qf CharlesX.: suppression of the public press—Cham, of Dep. dissolved—law of election changed. Three day*' Bevolation, July 27f 28, 29, 1838— Lafayette commander ofthe national guards—duke d’Or leans lieutenant ofthe kingdom—Charles X. abdicates—the crown accepted by Louis Philippe.
of Orleana—Louie Philippe, king of the French, 1830.
Continual change qf Ministry—but the king always rules in the cabinet.
1884 Riot at Lyons: 2000 military, and 8000 rioters slain—Quarrel with America respecting 41,000,000 indemnity.
1827 Duke of York dies.	1828 London University opened—Colonies fonnded on the Swan river.
1829 Riots in the manufacturing districts—new London police established—York minster set on fire.-
Distress general among all the productive interests qf the country.
William IV., brother, 1830—37.
Opening of the Liverpool railway—Husklsson killed, Sept. 15.
Incendiary	Disputes at Canton with the Chinese*
Great disturbances in Ireland, caused by distress and hatred of tithes.
New London bridge opened, Aog. 1.—Proclamations respecting cholera.
1834
: mw inmitfry, himouvv noien 91*1111—w«u» nuism.* 1v.pvv1.w5 i,vw,wv iuucujiiuj*	-- —	o- r- - »	®	•	-	.
Quadruple alliance of England, France, Spain, and Portugal, for the pacification qf Spain and Portugal by the expulsion of Don Miguel and Don Carlos from Portugal.
1835	Fieschi’s infernal machine—Mortier killed, forty others killed aud wounded—Fieschi and two accorap. exec.
Death of Lafayette.	Severe laws against the press, theatres, etc.
1836	Insurrection attempted at Strasburg by L. Nap. Buonaparte—another at Vendorae—suppressed.
The king fired at by Meunier.	1837 Marriage of the duke of Orleans to princess Helena of Mecklenburg.
The people still struggling for a larger share in the government.
Troublet in Canada—tee America.’	Hungerford market opened.	Incendiary fires.
Trade Unions.	Houses of parliament destroyed by fire.
Troops permitted to be raised in favonr of the queen of Spain.	Death of W. Cobbett.
Victoria, niece, aged 18,1B37.
Hanover goes to the duke of Cumberland.
b
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
51
PERIOD OF GREAT INTERNAL COMMOTION AND DISCONTENT IN ENGLAND.
Great Britain.
Portugal.
Spain.
CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY.
Fitt ministry till 1801—Fox, Sheridan, Grey, in opposition. Burke, North, and other whigs, support the ministry against the French Revolution and liberal movement, 1792.
Society of the Friends of the people: founded to promote reform—lord Lauderdale, Grey, Sheridan, its leaden_
■it complains of “royal prerogatives injurious to the public interest, a servile peerage, a rapacious and intolerant clergy, and a corrupt representation.”
1793 Society of United Irishmen—Scotch National Convention—Fox’s motion against the French WBr lost by 277 to 44— numerous persons tried and punished for political offences: Home Tooke, etc.—Habeas Corpus Act suspended.
1795 Increased disaffection—the Corresponding^ Society; with ramifications all over the kingdom. Mutiny of the Oxfordshire militia, joined by other regiments, for increase of pay.
Loan of £4,000,000 to the Emp. of Germany. Prince of Wales’s income increased on his marriage to £125,000 aryear; with £27,000 for preparations, £80,000 for jewels, £26,000 to furnish Carlton house.	Loan this year £18,000,000—National debt £245,000,O'4"
The king insulted in going to open parliament—great scarcity of provisions—Act for suppressing seditious meetings.
1798 Mt. Wilberforce loses his motion for the suppression of the slave-trade—Fox’s name struck out of the list of privy councillors—Habeas Corpus Act suspended till 1803—many arrests—1799 Restrictions on the press.
,800 Numerous riots, in consequence of the high price of provisions—the opposition to the address, supported by Fox and Whitbread, lost by 265 to 64.
Alarming and critical state of Borland—disaffection at home, and all Europe enemies.
1801 Pitt resigns on the Catholic question—Addington ministry.
1803	New rebellion in Ireland—lord chief justice Kilwarden and his nephew killed by the Dublin populace.
1804	Pitt again minister, with lords Hawksbury, Harrowby, Melville, and Camden, Messrs. Dundas and Canning. Disputes on the Regency question—1805 Impeachment of lord Melville.
1806 Grenville ministry on Pitt’s death i Fox, earl Spencer, and Windham, secretaries; lord Erskine, chancellor ; lord Sidmouth, privy seal; lord Petty, chan, of the exchequer; duke of Bedford, lord lieutenant of Ireland; Ponsonby, chancellor—Mr. Fox dies in Sept.—1807 Ministers dismissed on the Catholic question.
Portland ministry i duke of Portland, premier; Percival, chan, of the exchequer; Castlereagh, lord Hawksbury, and Canning, secretaries—Whitbread’s motion respecting the Poor Laws.
1808	Numerous petitions for parliamentary reform, against sinecure places, and for peace—Manchester riots.
1809	Duke of Wardle's charges against the duke of York—duke of Portland dies—Kr.Perolwal premier till 1812. Will. Cobbett, the champion of the peasantry and operatives, fined £1000 and two years’ imprisonment for libel.
1810	Disputes on the power of parliament to commit for breach of privilege—Gale Jones—sir F. Burdett sent to the Tower.
Petition from Dublin to repeal the Union.	Percival shot by Bellingham.
Xiwerpool ministry I Vansittart, chan, of exchequer; lord Sidmouth, Castlereagh, secretaries; Eldon, chancellor;
air Vicary Gibbs, att. general—In opposition: Ponsonby, Whitbread, Brougham, Hume, sir F. Burdett, etc.
Slsaffeotlon general among the middle and lower olasses, 1813-301 Causes: distress of the agricultural and manufacturing population, in want of bread and employment—a depreciated currency—the acknowledged existence and abuses of rotten boroughs, and an intense craving of the people for a greater portion of civil and religious liberty—a general mistrust of the ministry, whose measures are characterised by despotism, extravagance, the most cruel oppressions of the people for daring to complain, or petitioning for relief: their wretched spy-system, gagging acts, ex-officio informations, render them generally odious.
Tithes, rack-rent, and religious persecution drive the Irish to madness.
1816 Spafield riots—Platt shot by young Watson, who escapes to America—Cashman executed.
Petitions for Reform: 600 presented this session (Spafields’ signed by 24,000 (lord Folkstone), Manchester by 30,000, Leeds 7000, Portsdown hill 30,000) praying for universal suffrage, annual parliaments, decrease of expenditure, etc.—sir F. Burdett’s motion lost, 265 to 77—sale of Cobbett’s Register increased to 50,000 weekly.
Prosecutions of Hone for libel—Thistlewood, Watson, etc. for high treason—Brandreth, Turner, and Ludlam, executed for riots at Derby, Worcester, etc.
Manchester meeting, of 100,000 persons dispersed by the yeomanry, several killed and 100 wounded.
1821	Hunt and othere imprisoned for Manchester affair—sir F. Burdett fined £2000 for a letter against the Manchester massacre—W. Flower, £1000 and three months' imprisonment for libel on Peel—numerous prosecutions of Carlisle, his wife, and adherents, for political and religious lil>els.
1822	Great distress in Ireland: 99,639 in county of Clare, and 132,000 in Cork, absolutely without the means of subistence —the king’s coronation costs £238,000: his dress alone £24,000.
1822	Peel succeeds lord Sidmouth at the home office—lord John Russell’s motion for reform lost by 367 to 161— Castlereagh's suicide, Aug. 12.—Canning succeeds—more liberal system in foreign and domestic policy.
1823	Yorkshire meeting for reform, on requisition of 2000 freeholders—Hume’s motion for reform of the Irish protestant
church.	1827 Lord Liverpool attacked by paralysis.
Canning1 ministry, partly supported by the whigs: the duke of Wellington, Peel, and six other cabinet ministers resign—secretaries: marquis of Lansdowne, Sturges Bourne, and lord Goderich (Mr. Robinson); Copely (lord Lynd-hurst), chancellor; Tierney, master of the mint—Canning dies, Aug. 8, and is succeeded by lord Goderich.
1828	Jan. Wellington administration i Goulboum, chan, of the exchequer: secretaries: Peel, earl of Aberdeen, lord Palmerston, sir G. Murray; Lyndhurat, chancellor; sir C. Wetherell, att. general; marquis of Anglesey, lord lieutenant of Ireland. (Mr. Huskisson, lord Dudley and Ward, and Mr. Grant, go out on the East Retford bill.)
More vigour, straightforwardness, and virtue, but no liberality. Public feeling forces the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts; opposed by Peel, Huskisson, and Palmerston. Brougham’s motion on the state of the law—Penryn and East Retford disfranchisement bill lost in the Lords.
Catholic Emancipation gradually makes friends: 1813 bill thrown out in the Commons by a majority of four—1817 lost by 245 to 241—1824 Catholic rent £1052 7s. 6d., O’Connell—1825 petition signed by 100,000, presented by lord Donoughmore—bill for putting down Catholic Association, 226 to 94—Catholic Bill passes (sir F. Burdett’s) 273 to 238; lost in the Lords by a majority of 48—carried again, 1828, by a majority of six.
O’Connell elected member for Clare—riots in Ireland—Catholic Association resumes its sittings.
Kent large county meeting on Penenden heath for church and state.
1829	Sir Robert Peel resigns his seat for Oxford University—the clergy by great exertions and excitement return sir
Robert Inglis in opposition to him.	The Catholic Relief Bill carried.
1829	Riots in the manufacturing districts and Spitalfields—machinery and goods destroyed.
Blstreas general among all tbe productive interests of the country.
1830	Continued struggle of the opposition in parliament, backed by the people, for reform, and more liberal foreign policy. Nov. 2. New parliament, opened by the king—Wellington declares himself opposed to all reform—ministry defeated
on the civil list (sir H. Parnell) 233 to 204, resign.
Grey ministry (whig)—Grey, premier ; Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer ; secretaries : Melbourne, Palmerston, Goderich; lord Brougham, chancellor; Durham, privy seal; Grant, Lansdowne, sir J. Graham, lords Holland and Auckland; marquis of Anglesey, lord lieutenant of Ireland; Plunkett, chancellor; Stanley, secretary; lord John Russell, P. Thompson, Denman, etc.—Conditions upon taking office: Peace, Economy, and Reform.
1831	Reform Bill introduced by lord John Russell—ministers defeated on it, March 21.
New parliament, June 14. The Reform Bill rejected by the Lords, Oct. 7—various outbreaks in the country thereupon—dreadfal riot and fire at Bristol, upon sir C. Wetherell, a violent opposer of reform, entering that city.
L832 The Reform Bill carried in the Commons, 355 to 239—obstructed in the Lords—ministers resign—lord Ebrington's motion, and meetings all over the country in favour of reform—the duke of Wellington cannot form a ministry— Grey ministry reinstated.	The English and Irish Reform Bills pass.
New Parliament, Jan.; very large majority for the whigs: Irish Coercion Bill, Irish Church Temporalities'Bill, Reduction of Assessed Taxes and of Stamp duties on Advertisements—Abolition of Slavery; £20,000,000 indemnity to the slaveholders—new India Bill—Bank of England Charter.
1833	May 13. Coldbath-fields’ meeting, to adopt measures for calling a National Convention—dispersed—a policeman k.
1834	May. Mr. Stanley, sir J. Graham, earl of Ripon, and the duke of Richmond leave the ministry on Mr. Ward’s motion “ that the Protestant Episcopal Establishment of Irelarid exceeds the spiritual wants of the Protestant population, and ought to be reduced”—earl Grey retires—lord Melbourne, premier.
The Poor Law Bill passed.	Numerous incendiary fires.
Feb. Meetings in favour of the Established Church, to counteract the Bill for throwing open the Universities.
Six Dorchester labourers transported by a straining of the law—much excitement occasioned thereby, and numerous petitions in their favour—30,000 of the Trades' Union assemble at Copenhagen-fields, and march in procession to deliver a petition, signed by 266,000 persons, to lord Melbourne in their behalf.	Objections to Church Rates.
Bills in favour of Dissenters, the Jews, against Irish tithes, etc., pass the Commons, but are obstructed by the Lords—a Bill for the admission of Dissentera to the Universities passes the Commons 321 to 147,and 164 to75; lost in the Lords 102 to 85.
Great outcry among the liberals against the Lords, and of “the Church in danger" among the tones,
Nov. Ministry dismissed on the death of lord Spencer.
Peel’s administration (four months) : sir Robert Peel, premier; Wellington, Aberdeen, Goulboum, etc,— principles: anti-reform and conservative, with profession of granting what is reasonable.
1835	General excitement and display of party spirit on the dissolution <f parliament, and during the elections.
The ministry,beaten on lord John Russell’s “appropriation clause" to the Irish Tithe Bill, resign April 8.
Melbourne ministry restoredi lord John Russell, home secretary, and leader in the house of Commons; lord Mulgrave, lord lieutenant of Ireland.—Animated debates on Orange lodges, Canadian affairs, Irish Poor Law, Education, taking off the duty on newspapers, Church Rates, Dissenters' marriages, etc.
The substitution of a Declaration to be taken by students entering the University of Oxford in lieu of subscription to the Articles, lost in Convocation by 459 to 57.	New Poor Law causes great discontent.
The Municipal Corporations Reform Bill passed, much damaged by the Lords; who throw out the Irish Church and Tithes’ Bill, and some others. Canadian affairs occupy much attention.
Duties on paper, Assessed taxes, and newspaper stamps reduced—Registration, Dissenters’ marriage, and other Acts. Ministers, crippled by the opposition of the court and the house of Lords, are unable to carry out their plans cf reform ; the accession of Victoria brings them court favour, and their plans of reform become more moderate and lifeless.
1839 Rise of the Chartists—Agitation against the Com Laws.
Boom of Aqjon,
Maria.	Charles IV. -If
Prince of Brazil regent.
1793 First Coalition against Prance i see France.
1794 Invasion of the French.
Peace with France, 1795: negotiated by Godoy, hence called prince of Peace—loses St. Domingo.
1796 Alliance with France—war against England—naval defeat off Cape St. Vincent by the English, and complete destruction of Spanish commerce.
1799 Second Coalition against France i tee France.
1799 The prince declares himself king.
1801 Peace with France.
1804 Portugal compelled to job with England.
1807 Treaty between France and Spain for the partition of Portugal: a French army to march through Spain and take possession of Portugal; another to occupy the Spanish frontier—Revolution of Aranjuez: 1807 Napoleon declares 9^7 in8lll.ted and “prisoned by the peopli
that “ the house of Bra-ganza has ceased to reignflight to Brazil— Junot in Lisbon.
1808 Revolt: format, of an administrative Junta —League with England: arrival of a British ormy-victory of Vimiera— Sir Hugh Dalrymple concludes the Convention of Cintra, which gives great dissatisfaction.
Sir Arthur Wellesley generalissimo of the allied armies: defeat of Soult— the French troops driven
Peace of Amiens: loses Trinidad and Louisiana.
1803 Purchases neutrality with the French by a subsidiary treaty—declares war against England, 1804.
Charles abdicates.
Ferdinand VII., son, 1808-33.
Murat, with a French force, enters Madrid— Charles IV. protests against his abdication— appeal to Napoleon, who decoy the royal family to Bayonne, where they cede the throne to Napoleon.
Insurrection in the south at Cadiz: war of the Spanish patriots—Junta of Seville.
Joseph Napoleon, June 1808-13. League of the Junta with England—Joseph leaves Madrid (Aug.)—Nov. Napoleon in Spain—inquisition	and feudal privileges
abolished—and. monasteries, 1809.
1810 Sir John Moore lands—forms a junction with Sir David Baird at Saldanha—retreat—Soult repulsed at Corunna: d. of sir J. Moore. Soult enters Portugal Joseph again entera Madrid—second siege of takes Oporto. ^ _	Saragossa: 54,000 of the besieged said to have
perished by sickness, famine, or the sword.
War of the Guerillas—assembly of the Cortes at Cadiz—constitution, 1812. over the frontiers—Wellesley advances into Spain—victory of Taiavera.
1810	French, Italian, Polish, and German troops poured into the peninsula— Massena, commander: enters Portugal—Wellesley defeats the plans of the enemy, whom he drives to the frontiers.
1811	Marmont succeeds Massena—1812 Wellington storms Ciudad Rodrigo—Badajoz—victory of Salamanca, July 22—Wellington captures Madrid—junction of Soult and Joseph's armies—Well, retires.
Wellington appointed generalissimo by the Cortes, Dec. 1812. 1813 Victory of Vittoria, June 21, over Jos. Buon.—Pyrenees, July 28, over Soult, again Aug. 4—enters France—passage of the Neve, Ferdinand released, Dec. 11,1813—annuls the constitution of the Cortes—absolutism, etc.
Mexico declares itself independent. 1817 Spain accedes to the Congress of Vienna.
1819	Floridas in North America lost.
1820	Jan. Revolution by the army intended for America: Riego, Quiroga—the kingsweara
to the rnnatitntinn nf 11110_mnniaifi/vn oWaI
Dec. 10 and 13.
Entirely under English influence. Beresford generalissimo, 1815-20.
John VI., son, 1816-26,
1820 Revolution by the army at Oporto. Government of the Cortes.
1822	Brazil independent.
1823	Counter revolution by Don Miguel.
Upon the death of John, 1826, Don Pedro, the eldest son, cedes the throne to his daughter,
Maria da Gloria, 1827, (seven years old,) the infanta Isabel regent. Rebellion of the absolutists in favour of
to the constitution of 1812—inquisition abol.
1821	Reaction of the Camarillas, monks, and nobility—massacre of the people at Cadiz.
Peru declares itself independent.
1822	The anti-constitutionalists successful— army of faith—1823 Occupation of Spain by a French army for the suppression of constitutional government— the king retires to Seville— provisionary government at Cadiz—opposition —Mina and Quiroga escape to England; Riego taken and executed—the king is restored— despotism and bigotry prevail.
The Apostolic Junta.
1826 The last possession on the American continent lost.
1828 French troops entirely withdrawn.
Don Miguel, supported by the marquis of Chaves and Spanish troops, but put down by a body of 5000 men from England—Miguel appointed regent
1829	Vain expedition to Mexico and Cuba.
1830	Abrogation of the Salic law in favour of the king’s daughter, setting aside Don Carlos.
Oct. The French Revolution gives a new impulse to the liberals—vain attempt, Mina and Valdez.
1831	New and vain attempt at Cadiz to shake off the yoke—Torrijos betrayed, and, with Mr. Boyd and fifty others, shot at Malaga.
1832	King ill—regency of the queen—general amnesty, and adoption of a more liberal system.
1833	Anti-liberal ministry of Zea—intrigues of the Carlists—Don Carlos banished.
The Cortes swear allegiance to the infanta princess, as heir apparent to the throne,
Isabella, 1833—
daughter, (aged 3)—the queen-dowager regent. Insurrections in Biscay, Navarre, etc. in favour of Don Carlos.
—he swears to observe the constitution, 1828— immediately gets himself declared king.
Reign of Terror. Don Pedro’s proclamation agst. Miguel’s usurpation. Dreadful persecution cf the constitutionalists. 1829 Constitutional regency at Terceira, etc. 1A31 1 British squadron demands and obtains sad faction for insults, etc. to British subjects—French fleet forces the Tagus.
1832 Don Pedro lands at Oporto-1833 sails to Villa Real—victory of adm. Napier off Cape St. Vincent—capture of Lisbon. Maria II. generally acknowledged—Don Pedro regent.
Spain divided into forty-three departments. 1834 Quadruple alliance of England, France, Spain, and Portugal, against Don Miguel and Don Carlos.
Don Miguel capitulates, and retires to Italy. Dissolution efthe monasteries. Death of Don Pedro. Ministry if duke PalmeUa. Marriage of the queen with the duke Leuchten-beig,d. 1835—she marries (Jan. 1836) Ferd. Aug., duke of Saxe Coburg. 1836 Revolution—*constitution of 1820 demanded and agreed to— attempt at a counter revolution, Nov., suppressed—renewed	attempt,
1837, by marshals Terceira and Saldanha, likewise defeated,
Don Carlos retires to Portugal—visits England, and returns.
Estatuto real: first meeting of the Cortes, Proceres and Procuradores—new financial regulations, and settlement of the national debt. Continued civil war, with dreadful
Cholera at Madrid—riots caused by suspicion. British legion under sir Lacy .Evans—proclamation of Don Carlos that all strangers taken prisonera should be shot, devolution—the constitution of 1812 proclaimed and sworn to by the queen.
Cortes assembled, Oct 24.
Carlists repulsed by gen. Evans at St, Sebastian —Espartero defeats them and relieves Bilboa, again at Hema, 1837—gen. Evans carries Iran by assault—he leaves Spain.
a
52 Continuation of Table xvii.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Nineteenth
RISE AND FALL OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. BUONAPARTE’S GREAT EMPIRE.
Holland and
Belgium.
Joins the first coalition against France.
1703 Victory of Dumoorler at Jemappe, and conq ' " glum by the FrencL.
1703 Reconquered by the Austrian* under Coburg—victory of Alx-la-Chapelle.
and Joined to France, 1703.
1795 Pichegrn crosses on the ice, and conquers Holland — the stadtholder flees to England ; dies, 1806—the French received as deliverers.
Batavian Republlo.
SCHIMELPENNINK
at its head.
Alliance with France— opening of the Scheldt— war with England.
1799 Unfortunate invasion of the English (under the duke of York) and Rus-
Surrender of the Dutch fleet at the Texel to England.
Peace of Amiens — cedes Ceylon to the English.
1803 Occupied by the French.
War against England.
Louis Napoleon, king, 1806-10.
1809	Unfortunate expedition of the English to Walcheren.
1810	Holland joined to France.
1813 Insurrection against the French.
William, son of the hereditary stadtholder, sovereign prince.
Treaty with England : cede* Cape of Good Hope, Es-sequlbo, Demerara, and Ber-bice. For the last three colonies England builds a series of fortresses on the French frontier.
1797-8 General Revolution—the French invade Berne. Helvetian Republic. Central government for the fourteen cantons.
Genevaincorporated
with France. bassadors (April).
| Joins the second Grand Coalition against France.
Victories of the archduke over Jourdan at Ostrach and Stockach—he penetrates into Switzerland against Massena: victorious till separated from the Russians (Sept.)—Suwarrow generalissimo of the Russian and Austrian army in Italy (April)—victories of Cassano, Milan and Turin taken—the French leave Naples—victory of Suwarrow at Trebia and Novi—the French are driven from Mantua, Rome, and only retain Genoa—misunderstanding between Austria and Russia respecting Ancona, etc.—the Russians under Suwarrow withdraw to Switzerland to join Korsakow (defeated two days before by Massena)—famous retreat of Suwarrow over the Alps to Upper Suabia—the French, disheartened, maintain themselves in Switzerland with difficulty.
Campaign of\800—Buonaparte in Italy, Moreau in Germany—Buonaparte crosses Mount St. Bernard (while Genoa, long defended by Massena, falls)—enters Milan—restores the Cisalpine Republic—gains the victory of Marengo (June 14) over Milas (death of Desaix)—truce: all Lombardy to Mantua restored to the French—Moreau in Alsace repeatedly defeats Kray—enters Bavaria—takes Munich, etc.—repeated armistices—vlotory of Hohenllnden—victory of Brune on the Mincio in Italy.
Peace of Luneville and Florence: see France.
Secularisations.
1802 Struggle of the democratic cantons under Reding for federative government, against centralisation. Invasion of the French—patriots disarmed—new constitution of nineteen cantons, Buonaparte mediator, 1803. Alliance with France.
1806 Berthier prince of Neufchatel.
. 1815, king of tbe Netherlands,
and grand duke of Luxem-buig.
Campaign of the allies against Buonaparte— Waterloo, etc.
Aug. 24. Constitution for the Netherlands — liberty of the press.
1820 The sultan of Pa-limban subdued at Sumatra—abdicates, 1823. 1824 Treaty with England —cedes Bencoolen (Sumatra) for Malacca.
1827 Concordat with the Pope.
1829, 30 Insurrection in Java—Diepo Negoro, chief of the insurgents, imprisoned.
1830 Discontent of the Belgians—the opposition in the states so powerful as to withhold the supplies. 1830 Potter tried for a seditious conspiracy, and banished.
Belgle Revolution Bop. 23-7, The prince of Orange driven from Brussels—provisionary government. Prince Frederic with an army enters Brussels, but is compelled to retire—National Congress, 200 deputies—appeal of William to the live great powers, who effect an armistice.
The National Congress formally assembled, Nov., proclaims the
Independence of the Belgians, excludes the house of Orange from the throne, forms a new constitution, 1831, and elects to the throne
Leopold I., prince of Saxe Coburg, king of the Belgians.
1832 Marries Louisa of France—Nov., entrance of French troops. Capitulation of the citadel of Antwerp.
Conference.
1834 Riots in
a
Switzerland.
1794 Revolution in Geneva.
Germany.
House of Lorraine.
Francis II., son, 1792-1835.
1792 The French under Custine seize Mentz—retaken, 1793.
Declaration of war against France, 1793: Dumourier joins the Austrians.
1794	Battles of Lautcm—the French possess all the left bank of the Rhine.
1795	Invaded by three French armies: Jourdan crosses the lower Rhine, and invades the Palatinate—Moreau the upper Rhine into Bavaria: truce of Baden and Wurtemberg—victories of the archduke Charles at Ambeig and Wurtzburg over Jourdan—Moreau’s celebrated retreat.
1797 Buonaparte again defeats Wurmser at Rivoli—Mantua capitulates—another victory at Tagliamento—he crosses into Austria—Hoche and Moreau’s famous passage of the Rhine. Preliminaries of peace at Leoben, ratified at Campo Formio:
Beldam and Milan ceded to France ; Austria gains Venice as a set off, and acknowledges the Cisalpine Republic.
1797-99 Congress of Rastadt—murder of the French am-
Italy.
Sardinia and Savor.
1792
The French seize Savoy and Nice.
Naples & Sicily.
House of Apjou.
Ferdinand IV. -1814.
1793 Joins the first Coalition.
1708 Buonapartes first campaign from Nice: victories of Monte Notte, Milleslmo, Mondovi—truces with Sardinia and Parma—victories of Lodi—conquest of the whole of Lombardy, except Mantua, besieged from July, 1700, to Feb. 1707—victories of Boon, at Brescia, Lago di Garda, Roveredo, etc. over Wurmser; of Areola over Alvinzl— [see Germany.]
1797
Cisalpine Republic i
Modena, Milan, Bologna, Ferrara, Romagna, Mantua, pari of Venice, the other part to Austria.
Genoa formed Into the Ligurian Republlo
—constitution democratic.
1798 Invasion of the French—insurrection at Naples.
Republlo, 1799.
The king Sees to Palermo.
Tbe old g<
by card. ______________
Brit., Russ., and Turks. Corfu taken by Russians.
Republlo of the Ionian islands, under the protection ofTnrkey and Russia till 1807.
Minorca, 1708, and Malta, England.
1803 Sessions of the Empire, and settlement of the plan of indemnities.
1805 Joins the third Coalition against France.
Buonaparte attacks and defeats Mack, and destroys his army, before the Russians can join it—the French enter Vienna— victory Of Austerlltz over 1 Peace of Pretburg: France retains its possessions In Italy—acknow-
LJ_____a n___________ __ t.f__a i,_i..	n/._I-___I	u_______.*^1
1810 Valais incorporated with France.
1813	Entrance of the Allies—abrogation of the Act of
Mediation.
1814	Newfederative compact at Zurich.
Restoration of the confederacy, with three new cantons: Valais, Neufchatel, and Ge-
„ ____________r______king of Italy—Bavaria and Wirterabere erected
into kingdoms—Austria cedes to Bavaria the Tyrol, Brescia, Eiclistadt, Passan, Lindan, etc.—Breisgau, Ortenau.and Constance to Baden—W berg part of Austria. Austria obtains Salzburg and Berchtolsgaden—
1808 Murat grand-dnke of Cleves.
BlMolutlon of the Berman Empire. CONFEDERATION OF THB RHXNB till 1813. Napoleon Protector.
After the battle of Jena all between the Elbe and the Rhine to France—suppression of the houses of Hesse Cassel Brunswick
The king of Saxony be-
Jeromb Buonaparte,	comes duheof Warsaw,
king of Westphalia.
1808 Austria accedes to the Con-1808 Congress at Erfurt. tinental System.
1800 Mettemich minister.
War with France:—
battles of Abensburg, Echmuhl, and Ratisbon—Vienna capi-pitulates to the French—insurrection, in the mean time, in the Tyrol, under Hofer, aided by the Austrians, suppressed— Buonaparte repulsed at Aspem by the archduke Charles, but defeats him in the decisive battle of Wagram, July 5 and 6, which leads to the Unfortunate attempt of the British Peace Of Vienna I	at Walcheren.
iv eatenaiei, ana e,e- Salzburg, etc., to Bavaria—Illyrian provinces to France—West Galicia, etc. neva; sanctioned by to Saxony.
°f Vienna, chivalrous retreat of the duke of Brnuswick-Oels from Saxony to England.
1810 The north of Germany from the Wesel to Lubeck united to France.	1811 National bankruptcy of Austria.
1812 Alliance of Austria with France against Russia.
1813 War of Berman Independence.
The French hold the Elbe and Saale, opposed to the armies of Russia and Prussia—battles of Lutzen and Bautzen—armistice, June 4 to Ang. 10—Lubeck and Hamburg taken by the French— Congress of Prague— Austria joins the alliance against France—Bernadotte with the Swedish army in the north of Germany—Blncher defeats Macdonald on the Katsbach —the French again defeated at Grosbeeren—Ney at Dennewitz—
Battle of Lelpelc, Oct. 16,18, and 19— Buonaparte driven to the Rhine, with the loss of his whole army—the German population rise en masse—the princes of the Confederation Join the Grand Alliance.
1815 German League:	common a*
Thirty-nine states-a federative diet to be	1814-^une l®“*
held yearly at Frankfort on the Maine—all ...	,	..	,	.	.
the states to have representaljve govern-ments—equality of civil and religions rights for all Christian sects—liberty of the press-free trade.
Cantons.
1. Zurich.
3. Berne.
3.	Lucerne*
4.	Vri.
3. Schweitz.
8. Underwalden.
7.	Claris.
8.	Zug.
0. Fribourg.
10.	Soleure.
11.	Basle.
12.	Schaffhausen.
13.	AppenzeU.
14.	St. Gall.
13. Grisons.
16.	Aargau.
17.	Thurgau.
18.	Tesin.
10. Vaud.
20.	Valais.
21.	Neufchatel.
22.	Geneva.
Numerous emigrations to America, 1816-33.
1830	Revolution—
change of the aristo-cratical government into democratical.
Suppression of the patricians of Beme.
1831	Separation of the rural common of Beme from the
city.
Troubles in Neufchatel: Bourquier. 1832 Revision of the Act of Confederation. Samar.
1836 Rupture with France: extraordinary diet—adopts conciliatory
Venit kingdom, with the Val-telin—possessions in Ferrara and Piacenza—kingdom of Illyria, with Dalmatia and Ragnsa and Cattaro— the
1818 First diet opened at Frankfort.
Constitutional Charter for Weimar.
1818	Constitutional Charters to Bavaria— another to Baden— liberty of the press.
Kotzebue murdered by Sand.	Joins the Holy Alliance.
1819	Cong, of ministers at Carlsbad:
resolution against political discussions—cen- 1818 Congress of mon-sorshlp of newspapers and pamphlets. archs at Aix-la-Chapelle. Constitutional Charter to Wirtemberg—to
Hesse, 1820.	Austrians forbidden to go
1830 Revolution in Brunswick— to foreign universities, flight of duke Charles-William of 1820 Congress of mon_ Brunswick-Oels succeeds.	archs at jroppau.
Political commotions at Dresden	Jenill —lff|f
and Cassel.
Foreign journals prohibited.
CharteTfor theeUctorate 1821 Congress of mon-
archs at Lay bach.
1822 Congress of mon-archs at Verona.
1831 Cholera at Vienna. 1833 Congress of mon-archs at Tbplitz.
1837 On the death of William IV. Ernest of	_
Cumberland succeeds to the kingdom of 1834 Congress OlOerman Hanover, and immediately Issues a pro- ministers at Vienna, clamation to abrogate the Constitntion granted by his brother.
Troubles in Gottingen.
Constitutional Charter for Saxony.
1832	Act of German diet for the maintenance of peace and order—chiefly din against the liberty of the press.
Constitutional Charter for Hanover.
1833	Riots at Frankfort.
Buonaparte President.
1805 Buonaparte, king of Italy—coronation at Milan.
1809 The archduke John of Austria penetrates into Italy and defeats the French at Sacile— retires to Hungary.
1813 Prince Eugene in Illyria opposes the Anstrians— retreats to the Mincio—truce, April, 1814.
By the Peace of Paris:
Victor Emanuel returns to Turin—king of Sardinia, to which Genoa is united.
Ferdinand, archduke of Austria (broUier of Francis IV.), is reinstated in the grand dnchy of Toscany.
Francis IV. in Modena. Maria Louisa, wife of Napoleon, duchess of Parma and Piacenza. Maria Louisa, ex-queen of Etruria, obtains Lucca, in behalf of her infant son Don Carlos.
Bepublle of the
Corfu, Cepbalonia, Zante, St. Maoro, Ithaca, Paxo, Cerigo— Constitution, 1817: lord commissioner protector fc England.
1821 Revolution In Sardinia: for a more liberal government—put down by an army of Austrians. Tbe king resigns In favonr of hi* brother Charles Felix, 1821-31.
The Anstrians withdraw, 1823. Leopold II., son, 1824, grand duke of Toscany.
Charles Albert (prince of Carignan) succeeds Charles Felix In Modena, 1831.
General desire for liberty
— in Modena and Parma all pot down by Austrian troops—the Giovane Italia of Lombardy—military conspiracies and execnUons in Sardinia—new insurrections in Bologna, 1832: Austrian troops again interfere—the French occupy Ancona, 1833.
1803 Declaration of neutrality—the French occupy Naples under St. Cyr.
1805	Neutral in the Austrian war—French troops withdrawn—English and Russian troops land from Corfu—
Proclamation of Buonaparte from Schonbrun, “ The Dynasty of Naples has ceased to reign.”
1806	The English and Russians withdraw.
Joseph Buonaparte, king of the Txoo Sicilies, 1806-8.
[The king (Ferd.) retires to Sicily, where he himself with the of the English.]
Abolition of feudal privileges.
Joseph king of Spain.
Murat, king of Naples, 1808-15.
1810 Vain attempt upon Sicily.
1812 New Constitution for Sicily by lord W. Bentinch. Queen Caroline falls out with the English, and goes to Vienna, d. 1814.
Murat returns after the battle of Leipslc.
1814 Alliance with Austria—occupies Rome and Florence.
War with Austria—Bi-anchi compels Murat to retreat—Murat flees to France.
Restoration of Ferdinand IV., June.
Murat makes a descent —is taken and shot.
1816 Union of Naples and Sicily into one
Carbonari at Nola: Morelli, Pepe.
The king swears to a free constitution, but is summoned to the Holy Alliance at Laybach.
Riots in Sicily, which desires to separate from Naples.
1821 An Austrian army enters Naples.
Despotism triumphs—thirty-one patriots sentenced to death.
Francis I. son, 1825-30.
Ferdinand II. s. 1830-
1832 Ernption of mount Vesuvius and of mount Aitna, by which Bronte is destroyed.
Popes and Church History.
Pius VI. -1799. The French Republic excommunicated, 1793.
Foundation of the great English Missionary Society at London.
1798 Revolution—Berthier at Rome.
Homan Hepnbllo—the
Pope retires to Val—dies in France, 1700.
Pi usVII. ( Chiaramonti) 1800-23.
Elected at Venice.
1801 Concordat with France—where Napoleon restores the Catholic religion.
Secularisations of religious principalities and monasteries tn Germany by the peace of Luneville. 1804 The Pope crowns Buonaparte at Paris.
Foundation of tbe British and Foreign Bible Society.
1806 Congress of the Jewish nation at Paris, by Buonaparte.
1809	The papal dominions annexed to France.
The Pope carried to Savona, and 1812 to Fontainebleau.
1810	Church property in Prussia taken possession of by the state.
1814 The Pope reinstated by the allies.
Restoration of the Jesuits, of monasteries, and the Spanish inquisition-bull against Freemasons. 1817 Union of the Lutheran and Reformed churches in Prussia. 1817 Concordat with B<t-varia and France—1818 with Sicily—1821 with Prussia.
Leo XII., 1823-9. The native Missionary Society of N. America. Struggle of Rationalism with Supematuralism and Mysticism in Germany, etc.
1827	Tholuck, at Halle, and Hencstbnberg, at Berlin, editors of the Evangel. Kirch-zeitung (Evangelical Mag.) heads of the Supematuralists and Mystics—Gesknius and Weoscheider at Halle,Pal-lus of Heidelberg, editors of the Denhgtaubigen, chiefs of Rationalism.
In France, only thirteen years from tbe Restoration, are 3000 religions houses for females, and 21,000 nuns—the great activity of the Clergy and Jesuits to regain their former influence and power.
1828	Repeal of the Teat Act In England,
which, np to this time, bad deprived Dissenters of the rights of citizenship.
i of the
1829.
Pius VIII., 1829-31. 1830 The priesthood of France again overthrown by the revolution of three days.
Beet of the St. Simo-nlana I In France, (from (St. Simon, d. 1828), under their Pope the father Enpan-
Gregory XVI. -1831.
Revolution in the papal states, suppressed by Austrian armies. Turkish edict of toleration for the Rayahs.
Church Commission for the better distribution of Church property in England.
1838 Disputes with Pru&ia.
Great dissensions among the clergy if the Church of England. Tracts for the Times.”
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
53
ARMED NEUTRALITY AGAINST BRITAIN. BUONAPARTES DISASTROUS RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN.
Denmark.
Sweden.
Prussia.
Poland.
Russia.
Christian VII. -1808. Lucrative
Gustavub IV.-1809.
Duke of Sudermania regent till 1796.
Feedeeic William II. -1797.
Cathabinb I1.-1796.
1794 Alliance with Sweden for the maintenance of an Armed Neutrality and freedom of commerce in the Baltic, from which the fleets of the belligerent powers are to be excluded.
1795 Recognition of the French Republic.
commerce with
a neutral flag.
1797 Gustavus marries Frederica of Baden, sister-in-law of Alexander of Russia, which introduces Russian influence.
Stanislaus Poni-ATOfKI. —1795.
17 9 2-1801 Frenoh Revolutionary War.
1792 The Prussians invade Champagne and I	Il793 Alliance with England agaimt France :
take Verdan—but are defeated at Valmy,	commercial treaty with England—a stiu more favourable
and forced to retreat	|	I 0De im-
1793 The Prussians enter Poland under pretence of suppressing Jacobinism, and seize Dantzic.
1793 Treaty of union with Russia:
Subsidiary treaty with England, 1794.
1795 Peace of Basle with France:
France left in poaseulon of the left bank of (be Rhine, and a line fixed for the neutrality of Northern Germany.
1795 A Russian squadron, under KanikofF, joins the English fleet against the French.
War with Persia for Georgia.
179 S nnal partition of Poland—Hxtlnctlon of the Polish name and klnadomi
Austria takes W. Galicia, with Lublin and Cracow—Russia, Courland, with the remainder of Lithuania and Vol-hynia—Prussia, Warsaw, Bialystock, and their territories.—Stanislaus dies at Petersburg, 1798.
1798 Ooneral revolt at Cracow under Madalinski:
Kosciusko general-in-chief—bloody defeat of the Russians at Warsaw— unsuccessful alege of Wanaw by the Prussians—Kosciusko defeated and taken prisoner by Ferten at Maczlelowlcz—Storm of Praga by Sowarrow—20,000 of the Inhabitants slaughtered.
Strict economy in finance.
Paul, son, 1796-1801.
1797 Succession to the throne settled on heirs male and female by primogeniture.
1797	Peace of Tefliswith Persia—acquisition of Derbent and the country as far as the Kur.
1798	Joins the second coalition against France.
1799	Russian armies in Italy and Switzerland, under Suwarrow and Korsakow—Russian fleets in the Mediterranean and on the coast of Holland—occupation of Naples and the Ionian islands, jointly with the Turks and English—Alliance with Sweden. Paul withdraws in disgust from the alliance with England and
Austria, and sends an ambassador to Paris.
1798, 9 Capture and condemnation of Danish and Swedish vessels trading to France by British cruisers: hence defensive alliance of Denmark, Sweden, and Russia against the
maritime law of England; and	_
1800 Convention of the Worth for an Armed Weutrallty, between Russia, Denmark, Sweden, and (1801) Prussia, aimed against England.
1796 Secret compact with France for the secularisation of Munster, &c.
Feedeeic William III., son, 1797-Reform of the court and ministry, and economy in the finances, drained by the prodigality of the last king.
1799 Neutrality in the coalition against France.
1801 Occupation of the banks of the Elbe and Weser by Prussians and Danes—and of Hanover by Prussians. Battle of Copenhagen— I	|
Destruction of the Danish 1
fleet by Nelson.	|	I
Peace of Petersburgh (on tho death of Paul), between England, the Northern Powers, and Prussia—the British maritime laws recognised.
1802 New censorship of the press.
1804	Refuses to acknowledge Napoleon as Emperor.
1805	Alliance with Russia and England against France.
806 Disputes with Prussia for Lauenburg.
1807 War with England, under French influence — Bombardment of Copenhagen and destruction of the Danish fleet.
Alliance with France and Russia against Sweden and England— 32,000 French auxiliaries under Bernadotte occupy Denmark—the Russians invade Finland, and take Swcaborg by treachery—11,000 English auxiliaries in Sweden; dismissed without effecting anything—fruitless invasion of Norway by the Swedes.
1809 The Russians take Tornea, and Feedeeic VI. son, the Aland Isles.
1808-	R e v o 1 u t i o n—the king becomes in-
(regent since 1784). sane, and is deposed.
1807 The French in Pomerania— siege of Stralsund—capitulation of the Swedes at Rugen.
1800	Embargo on English vessels.
1801	Paul murdered.
Alexander, son, 1801-25.
Change of policy—peace with both France and England. Georgia incorporated with the Empire.
1802 University nf Dorpat founded.
1803 Russia joint mediator with France to the “ Deputation Extraordinary of the Empire,” for the indemnifications after the peace of Luneville.
War with the Lesghi mountaineers on the Caspian—hence War wltb Persia, 1808-13.
1805-7 War, in conjunction with Austria, against France— Alexander at Austerlitz—retreats after the battle.
806 War with the Porte—occupation of Moldavia and Walachia.
War wltb Franee In alliance wltb Russia—defeats of Saalfeld, Jena and Auerstadt, Oct. 14—the French cross the Vistula—Insurrection of Poland—the French take Warsaw.
1807 The Russians in Poland—defeat of Preussisch-Eylau—fall of Dantzic—defeat of Friedland—Konigsberg taken, the king flics to Memel—Conferences of Alexander and Napoleon on the Niemen.
Peace of Tilsit between Russia, Prussia, and France :
Prussia loses, 1. The provinces between the Elbe and Rhine for the new kingdom of Westphalia—the Polish provinces for the duchy of Warsaw— Dantzic, See., and joins the “ Continental System.”—Russia cedes the Ionian Islands, and joins the “ Continental System,” receiving Bialystock.
1807 Armistice of Sloboja with the Turks-
1803 Acquisition of various states (in exchange for Cleve, &c., on the left bank of the Rhine) by the decision of the “ Deputation Extraordinary of the Empire.”
1805	Bernadotte violates the Prussian territory— the Russians march through Silesia—Occupation of Hanover and Bremen by Prussia.
Treaty of Vienna concluded by Haugwitz with France after Austerlitz—Acquisition of Hanover for Anspach and Neufchatel.
1806	Wesel, Eltcn, Essen, and Werden seized by France—England declares war on the occupation of Hanover—negotiations by Knobelsdorf in Paris.
1809 Peace of Jonk'up-ing with Sweden—all things as before the war.
1813 Negotiations with England and Sweden —broken off on Denmark refusing to cede Norway—hence Alliance with France— and War with Sweden. The Swedes and Russians overrun Holstein and Jutland.
Chables XIII. uncle, 1809-18.
eluded;—state-council advisers of the king-diet every fifth year.
1809	Peace of Fredericksham with Russia:
Loss of Finland, E. Bothnia, and Aland: one-fourth of the kingdom.
1810	Peace with France:
Pomerania and Rngcn restored to Sweden on her adopting the “ Continental System.”
Bernadotte, elected crown-prince, arrives in Sweden.
War declared against England under French compulsion,but no hostilities.
1812	Pomerania and Rugen seized by Napoleon on Sweden refusing to declare war on Russia.
Peace of Orebro with England —Conference of Abo between the crown-prince and Alexander — Alliance with Russia against France.
1813	The Swedes, under Bernadotte, in Germany, against Napoleon at Leipsic, &c.
1814 Peace of Kiel with Sweden and England:
Norway ceded to Sweden in exchange for Pomerania and Rugen—Heligoland to England.	.	..	_
Norway refuses to submit to Sweden—prince Christian tre-deric of Denmark declared regent; and proclaimed king May 19—blockade of Norway by the English, and invasion by Swedes—Convention of Moss, Aug. 14—Christian
Frederic resigns.
1814	Treaties of amnesty and commerce with Russia and Prussia.
1815	Swedish Pomerania and Rugen exchanged with Prussia for the Duchy of Lauenburg at the congress of Vienna.
Builds a new fleet.
1831 New constitution for Denmark, Sles-wick, and Holstein— with representative local councils.
1884 Cholera.
Union of Sweden and Norway as
two kingdoms under one crown; the succession alike for both—Constitution for Norway, Nov. 4.
1816 The Norway Storthing entirely abolishes nobility.
Chables XIV. 1818-( Bernadotte ).
Coronation at Stockholm and Dron-theim.
1822 Protestation of the Norway diet against the creation of an official nobility.
1824 The Norway Storthing declines the royal offer to change the constitution, and to introduce a new nobility.
1832 The Gotha canal openet
____ jvacuation
of Moldavia.
1808 War with Sweden—occupation of Finland, and capture of Sweaborg.
Conference of Alexander and Napoleon at the Congress of Erfurt.
War declared against England after the bombardment of Copenhagen.
1609	Capture of the Aland Isles from Sweden—war with the Porte renewed.
Russian troops against Austria in Galicia.
Peace of Fredericksham with Sweden :
acquisition of Finland, E. Bothnia, and Aland—Austria cedes W. Galicia to the duke of Warsaw, and Tarnopol in E. Gallicia to Russia.
1610	Repulse at Shumla—capture of Rudshuk, Giur-gevo, and Silistria.
New organisation of the dignitaries and council of the empire.
1811 Reconciliation with England—peace concluded 1812—victory of Rudshuk over the Turks.
1812 Alliance with Sweden against France—Peace of Bucharest with the Porte:
acquisition of Bessarabia, and Moldavia as far as the Pruth.
Invasion by Napoleon wltb 800,000 men—capture of Smolen-sko—Kutusoff, Russian commander-in-chief, defeated at Borodino—the French enter Moscow—MOSCOW burnt—retreat of the French in wiuter—flight of Napoleon, 240,000 French perish, 30,000 in crossing the Beresina.
Russian and Prussian troops In the German war of liberation, 1813-1G.
Prussian commanders, Blucher, Gneisenau, Bulow.	1813 Peace of Goolistan with Persia:
1814	Prussian troops in France—battle Of Laon, &C. acquisition of Daghestan, Shirwan, Sic.—the succession of Abbas Mirza guaranteed.
1815	Prussian troops in Belgium under Blucher— battle of Ligny, &c. vide France.
Congress of Vienna:
Prussia acquires—i. The Rhenish provinces lost in iKINBOOIN OF POLAND' formed of the duchy of Warsaw, &c.—united P^n wi.rDVntzich»d0^!ra:0ly kweShh PomfrLu U> Russia, but with separate administration, and free press, and Rugen from Denmark In exchange for Luxemburg. |The grand-duke Constantine Viceroy.
1815 The “Holy Alliance” between Russia, Prussia, and Austria; and in 1818 France.
Priusla reduoed to a second-rate power-prostrate before Pranee.
1808 The French levy a contribution of 140,000,000 francs, and keep garrisons in Stettin, Custrin, Glogau, and Dantzic, though the last is declared a free city 1
New regulations for the resuscitation oj the kingdom, by the ministers Harden-burg and Stein—privileges and exemptions of the nobles abolished— military organisation for all in rotation.
Universities of Berlin 1810, Breslan 1811.
1812	Compulsory participation in Napoleon’s Russian campaign.
1813	The king throws off the French yoke—Alliance of Kalisch with Russia—the Russians enter Berlin—War with France—levies of militia and volunteers — the whole nation rise in arms — Alliance of Reichenbach with England.
Duchy of Warsaw.
Frederic Augustus,
king of Saxony, duke, 1807-14.
1809 Warsaw taken by tho Austrians under the archduke Ferdinand — they retreat, and the Poles take Cracow.
Peace of Vienna.
1812 The Poles in vain hope for a restoration of their kingdom by Napoleon.
1814 Russian troops in Amsterdam and Paris.
1818-27 New tariff.
1820	A Rhenish West Indian company.
General
1821	Concordat with the pope. desire of
1823 Introduction of provincial parliaments. representative government.
1831 The cholera in Dantzic and Berlin.
Favour and assistance to the Russians in their attempts to put down the Polish struggle for liberty.
Disputes with the archbishop of Cologne and the pope.________
1819	Military colonies established—standing army (?) upwards of
1000,000 during peace.	Umverrity Of Petersburg.
1820	The Jesuits expelled.
Nicholas I., br., 1825-
the elder brother, Constantine, refusing the crown.
Military commotion at Petersburg suppressed—execution of Pestcl, &c. 1826 War with Persia.
1827	Treaty with the Porte respecting Greece—Paskewitch takes Eriwan and Tauris—battle of Navarino.
1828	Peace of Turkmanshai with Persia, who cedes Eriwan and Nakidschiwan.
War with Turkey, (200,000 men)—peace of Adrianople.—See Turkey. Free navigation of the Black sea and Dardanelles.
Revolution, NOV. 1830, at Warsaw—the irmy declares for the people-grand-duke Constantine retires—1831 23th Jan. throne declared vacant—decree of emp. confiscating the estates of all who take part in this revolt—the lower orders to be sent to Siberia—150,000 Russians to 52,000 Poles—Skrzynecki defeats the Russians under Diebitsch at Wnrz. Dwernif ki, expedition into Volhynia—Warsaw capitulates, Sept. 7. Decree—Poland to be completely united to Russia—citadel of Warsaw founded—70,000 Russian troops occupy Poland.
The struggle of the Poles has completely subsided—the country is governed as a conquered province—the Polish language suppressed—and 6000 of the highest families forcibly removed into Asia.	__ ___________
1833 Treaty with Turkey (See lurkey).
Cracow occupied by Russia and Austria.
54 Continuation of Table xvii.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
The Nineteenth
NEW KINGDOM OF GREECE. EXTENSIVE EMPIRE OF THE BRITISH IN INDIA.
Ottoman Empire.
Selim III.-1807.
Egypt and Afbica.
1798	War with France: 1798 Invasion by the French under Buonaparte
alliance with Russia—an —Tlctory of the Pyramid! over the Mameloke!—Cairo auxiliary Russian fleet at SSfleoftteKUe.	by “ **
Buyukdere.	1709 Invasion of Syria with the view of marching to Con-
suntinople—foiled by the gallant defence of Acre—de-
1799	Alliance With England feat of the Turks at Abonklr— Buonaparte returns to
and Naples against France. JfcThber mnrdered-Menou in command-landing of
1800 Malta triton hv tho ,w0 British *rmic« from India and England—victory T? r.JTalta take“ the at Ramanie—death of Abercrombie.
English.	isoi Capitulation of Cairo—the French evacuate Egypt.
1802 Peace with France on the evacuation of Egypt.
1801-18 War in Arabia with the Wahhabis, who take Mecca 1803—and Medina 1804.
1804 Insurrection of the Servians under Czerni George. 1806 Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt. Organisation of Nizam-Jedid, or regular troops— discontent of the Janizaries.
1806 Sebastiani, French ambassador—Revival of French influence —hence War with England and Russia.
Occupation of Moldavia and Walachia by the Russians—and of Belgrade by Czerni George.
1807	Revolt of the Janizaries against the new troops—Selim deposed and imprisoned.
Mustapha IV., son of Abdul-Hamid, 1807-8.
Truce of Sloboja with Russia—the army marches to Constantinople to restore Selim, but he is put to death by Mustapha—it then sets up
Mahmood II., brother of Mustapha, 1808.
1808	Great revolt of the Janizaries, who massacre the new disciplined troops.
1809	Peace with England—war with Russia renewed—
1810	Rudshuk, Giorgevo, and Silis-
miUi«puL,St%huUl#nS~Ka' 1810 The Wahhabis penetrate to Damascus.
1811	The Vizier drives the Russians
*e'l M*mcr« of the M^nelul. boy. at
1812	Peace of Bucharest Co.ro by Mohammed Al,.
with Russia:	1812 Mecca and Medina retaken from the
Bessarabia and part of Moldavia Tlr , , ,. ceded-the Pruth the boundary. w annabIS.
1794 Mahmood,brother, revolts, is defeated, and flees into Persia.
1795 Crosses the Indus —and again, 1797, when he takes Lahore, but is recalled by revolts at home.
1795	Lutf Ali taken and put to death.
Xadiar dynasty
(Turkman!.)
Aga Mohammed Shah, 1795-7.
Teheran capital.
1796	Defeats the Russians and
Georgians, takes Teflis, and massacres the inhabitants
1797	is assassinated for his cruelties, and succeeded by Futteh Ali Shah, nephew,1797-1834.
1799-1800 Invasions of Khorassan, repulsed.
1800 Shah Zem&n deposed and blinded by Mahmood Shah, br., 1800-2.
1801-2 Civil wars with the Ghilji tribes.
1801 Conquest of Khorassan, except Herkt, from Cabul.
1802 Mahmood dethroned by a popular
1806 Erivan taken by the Russians.
1813 Suppression of the Servian revolt.
Reform of the military organisation— advancement of arts, public Instruction, etc.
1815 Fresh troubles in Ser- 1815 The Egyptian army disciplined on the via—conclusion of a treaty European model, securing to the Servians the 1816 Al iers bombarded by the Engiish. free exercise of their reli- 1Q1Q 0 f.	...	,.
gion and liberties.	1818 SubJuSatlon of the Wahhabis.
Greek Revolutionary War, 1821-9.
1821	Revolt in Moldavia under Alex. Ypsilanti—battle of Dragatschan— suppressed—revolt of the Morea—massacre of Greeks at Constantinople, and execution of the patriarch.
1822 Nubia conquered.
1822	Greek Declaration of Independence—Napoli taken, and the Turks driven out of the Morea—arrival of numerous Philhellene foreigners—massacre of Scio: 40,000 Greeks slain, 30,000 sold as slaves.
1823	Turkish invasion repulsed—naval superiority of the Greeks.
1824	Arrival and death of lord Byron at Missolongni—naval victories of Miaulis—Ipsara taken by the Capitan-pasha.
1825	Landing of the Egyptians under Ibrahim pasha in the Morea—recapture of Navarino, Tripolizza, and (1826) Missolonghi—the Greeks everywhere defeated.
1826	Revolt of the Janizaries in Constantinople, suppressed: 15,000 slaughtered, and the corps proscribed—a new army organised on the European model.
1826	Convention of Akerman with Russia.
1827	Lord Cochrane in Greece—defeat of the Greeks at Athens, and Acropolis taken—Capo d’lstria elected president of Greece—Treaty of July 6, between England, Russia, and France, for the settlement of Greece —battle of Navarino: Turco-Egyptian fleet destroyed.
Gbeece.	1828 War with Russia :
1828	Morea cva- jj,e nnM|ant repulsed from before Shumla, bat take Varna at the cuated by the E- cost of 20,000 men.
gyptians — provi-
einnnllv nooiinipri 1829 Fa*l of Silistria—Paskevitch takes Erzronm in Asia—defeat of 1	^ P u Prevadi— Diebitscli crosses the Balkan-defeat of Kirk-Kliaaeh-
by 15,000 rrench the Russians take Adrianopie, and advance upon the capital, troops.
1829 Peace of Adrianopie:
The Porte cedes to Rnssia fortresses In Asia, Anapa, etc.—Moldavia and Walachia under Russian protection—Mllosch declared prince of Servia—7,000,000 ducats paid to Russia for the expenses of the war—the Greek boundaries seUled (changed in 1S30 for a line from Anatoiico to Thermopylae.)
1630 The first newspaper in Egypt.
1830	Troubles and	1830 Algiers taken and occupied by the
dissensions.	French.
1831	The Greek fleet 183(M ReV°lt8 “ Albania» oppressed, burnt at Poros by Mi- 1831 Turkey ravaged by the cholera.
seizure by theRussians! 1831 The Moniteur Ottoman—the first Turkish newtpaper.
1831 Revolt of Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, who 1831 Assassination invades Syria—is put to the ban of the empire, 1832. of Capo d’lstria. j832 Ibrahim pasha takes Acre, defeats the Turks at . _	Homs, and occupies Aleppo and Damascus—enters
Otho, of Bavana, A j Minor-decisive battle of Koniyeh : 80,000 declared king of Xurkf, dain>
1833	The sultan calls in Russian troops—Peace with the pasha of Egypt, ceding Syria and Adana.
Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi with Russia: offensive and defensive—the Porte, in case of need, to close the Dardanelles against any foreign vessels whatsoever.
1834	Poite established.
Extensive insurrections in Syria against the government of Ibrahim pasha.
1838 Dignity of grand vizier abolished.
declared king Greece, by the London Conference.
1833 Arrival of k. Otho—the French troops evacuate Greece.
Persia.
Lutf Ali Khan, -95.
Cabul, etc.
Shah Zeman, son, 1793-1800.
India.
Tippoo, sultan of Mysore, -1799. Shah-Alim II., emp. of Delhi, -180i 1793 Embassy from Tippoo inviting him to invade India.
1801 Georgia incorporated with Russia.
1804-18 War with Russia.
revolt.
Shuja-al-mulk, (uterine brother of Shah Zeman), 1802-9.
1804 Reconquest of Sind.
1805-9 The Afghans expelled from the Punjab by the Seiks under Runjeet Singh.
1808-9 Elphinstone’s embassy to Cabul. 1809 Revolt of Futteh Khan, who expels Shuja.
Mahmood restored, Rival intrigues	1809-18.
of France Futteh Khan engrosses the whole power.
1811 Invasion of Khorassan—defeat at Herat by the Afghans.
1811 Defeat at Chooch 1813 Peace of by the Seiks. Goolistan with Russia: cession of the provinces on the Caspian (Daghestan, Shir-wan, etc.)
and England at the
Persian court.
1793	War with France—Pondicherry occupied by the English till 1802.
1794	Death of Mahadajee Sindia—contests of the rival houses of Sindia and Holkar, and consequent decline of the Mahratta power.
Mabquis Wellesley, governor-gen., 1798-1805.
1799 War with Mysore, fomented by France—storm of Seringapatam, and death of Tippoo—
fall of the Mysorean kingdom.
The English sole masters or Southern India, except the Mahratta states.
1802 Pondicherry restored to the French.
1802	Treaty of Bastein with the Peish-wah, who receives a subsidiary force : hence
Great Mahratta War, 1803-B.
1803	Poonah taken—Wellesley in the Dekkin—victory of Assaye—Lake in Central India—Delhi and Agra taken —Peace with Scindiah and the Rajah ofBerar: acquisition of the Dooab, Delhi, and Agra—the emperor pensioned by the English.
1804	War with Holkar continues—he attacks Delhi—routed by Lake—Indore, Holkaris capital, taken.
1805	Unsuccessful siege of Bhurtpore by Lake—fresh rupture with Sindia.
Lobd Cobnwallis, governor-general,
1805—dies in two months—Sir George Barlow administers till 1807.
1805 Pacific system: Peace with the Mahrattas.
Akbab Shah II., son, emp. of Delhi, 1806-36.
Lobd Minto, governor-general, 1807-13.
Pacific policy—rise of the Pindarees under Cheetoo and Amir Khan.
[809 Invasion of Berar by Amir Khan, repulsed.
1810 Conquest of Bourbon snd Mauritius.
1821-3 War with the Porte—Peace ofErzroum, 1823.
1818 Conquest of Cash-mire and Moultan by the Seiks.
1818 Murder of Futteh Khan by order of the king—general revolt— Mahmood abdicates, and flees to Herat.
Ayub, brother, 1818-28.
1826-8 War with Russia—the crown prince, Abbas Mirza, penetrates to Elisabethpol.
1827	Eriwanand Tauris taken by
the Russians.
1828	Peace of Turkmanschai:
Eri wan ceded—the Araxes made the boundary—the sovereignty of the Caspian ceded to Russia.
1834 Death of Futteh Ali Shah—
( civil wars among his numerous sons, but England and Russia secure the throne to
Mohammed Shah, grandson, 1834.
Siege of Herat,
civil wars and anarchy.
1823 Defeat of Nushero by the Seiks under Runjeet Singh—the kingdom falls to pieces, only Herat remaining, in the possession of Mahmood.
Powerful Seik kingdom of the Punjab,
Runjeet Singh.
1829 Death of the abdicated king Mahmood at Herat—succeeded by his son Kamran, (as a vassal of Persia.).
The state of these countries excite much interest, from their forming the bulwark <f the British possessions in India against Persia
China.
Intrigues of the Mahrattas, who begin to reconsolidate their power.
Lobd Hastings, governor-general, 1813-23.
1814 Ghoorka war in Nepaul—unsuccessful campaign—victories of Ochter-lony, 1815— Peace, 1816 : acquisition of Kumaoon and the mountain passes.
1817	Pindaree war—the British force weakened by the cholera—war with the Mahrattas on their joining the Pindarees—all overpowered in detail —the Peishwah defeated and deposed, and the Pindarees annihilated—Holkar stripped of two-thirds of his territory.
1818	Revolt of the Nagpoor Rqjah, who is overpowered and deposed.
The Mahratta power overthrown—
Kien-Long,-1 796.
1794 Dutch embassy under Van Braam.
1796 Kien-Long abdicates at the age of eighty-seven —dies 1799. Kia-King, son, 1796-1820.
1803 Conspiracies in the imperial family, and revolts in all directions.
Continual wars with the pirates, headed by Ching-yih, and
after his death by his widow: revolts in Fokien,
1816 Embassy for commercial purposes under lord Amherst—unsuccessful from his refusal to perform
KO-TOU.
Shensi, and other provinces.
Taou-Kwang, son, 1820.
Revolts of the Moslems in Western Tartary under
Chang-ki-hur, suppressed about 1827.
Lobd Amhbb6t, governor-general,
1823-8.
1824	War with Birmah—conquest of Arracan, and capture of Rangoon and Prome, 1825—Peace of Yandabu, 1826: Birmah pays £1,500,000, and cedes Arracan, Mergui, Tavoy, and Tannaserim.
1825	Revolt of Bhurtpore—besieged and taken by lord Combermere. Treaty with Siam.
Lobd W. Bentinck, governor-general,
1833 The Chinese and Indian trade thrown open, on the expiration of the Company’s Charter, to all British subjects, who are allowed to settle and potsess lands in India—First admission of the natives to "
1834	Revolt of the Rajah of Coorg— which is put down, and he deposed.
1835	The Naw’ab Shumsodcen executed at Delhi for the murder of Mr. Fraser.
Lobd Adcxland, governor-general,
1834 Stoppage of trade at Canton by the Chinese, on lord Napier's proceeding to Canton without permission—reopened after some violence.
1835 Great fire at Canton—3000 houses destroyed.
a
b
c
d
Century.
OF MODERN HISTORY.
55
PROSPERITY OF THE UNITED STATES. FORMATION OF NEW S. AMERICAN REPUBLICS. BOLIVAR.
United States of North America.
Washington, president, -1796.
Proclamation of neutrality as to France.
1794	Commercial treaty of London with England.
Commencement of the navy—six frigates built against the Algerines.
1795	Treaty with Spain.
1796	Washington resigns—his farewell address—dies, 1799, aged 68.
Tennessee becomes a State of the Union.
John Adams elected president, 1797—1801.
1798-1800 Disputes with France.
1800 Seat of government-transferred to Washington.—Population 5,300,000. Jefferson, president; elected by the democratic party, 1801-9.
1802 Ohio joins the Union—17th State.
1808 Louisiana purchased from France for 60 millions of francs:
of Immense importance to the U. S. as commanding the ontlet of the mighty Mississippi, united with the Missouri and Ohio rivers—the great highway for (he produce of the western states.
1805 Disputes with England respecting the trade of neutral Powers—right of search, and seizure of Britisn seamen in American vessels—1807 The U. S. frigate Chesapeake resists this claim—British ships of war forbidden to enter the harbours and seas of the U. S.—Embargo Act passed—Non-Intercourse Act, forbidding all trade with England and France till the French and Berlin Decrees, and the British Orders in Council, should be repealed.
Fulton's first sueoesfal trial of steam boats, on the Hudson.
1808 Slave trade abolished by Act of Congress.
James Madison, president, 1809-17.
1810 Intercourse re-opened with France—Napoleon relaxing his system.
Third census of U. S-—Population 7,230,903. 1812-15 War with Oreat Britain i
He American navy, under Hull, Decatur, Bainbridge, Lawrence, Porter, Chauncey, Perry, and Macdonough, gains glory, capturing 13 British frigates and ships of war at sea, and flotillas on lakes Erie, Champlain, and Ontario. On land, the Americans are defeated at Detroit, French-town, dec.; but, under Johnson, Dearborn, Macomb, Ac., victorious at Queenstown, the Thames, Chippewa, and Plattsburg.
1814	City of Washington burnt by the British.
1815	Battle of New Orleans—Gen. Jackson defeats the British under Sir Edw. Pakenham, who loses 2600 men, Jan. 8.
Peace of Ghent (signed 1814) ratified, Feb. 17 :
boundaries to be adjusted—all conquests restored.
This war leads the Americans to think of manufacturing for themselves, and shows them the necessity of a navy.
Attack on Algiers for breach of treaty—advantageous peace made July 4.
1816	United States bank incorporated—Capital 85,000,000 dollars.
Indiana received into the Union—18th State.
Monroe, president, 1817-25.
ssipni received into the Union—19th Si
—planned by Dewitt Clinton.
1818 Illinois received into (he Union—20th State.—1819 Alabama—21st Slatc.
First passage of the Atlantic by steam
effected by the Savannah, of New York, to Liverpool.
1820 Maine received into the Union—22nd State. Florida ceded to U. S. by treaty with Spain.
1821 Missouri received into the Union—23rd State.
1824 New Tariff adopted, protecting American manufactures of cotton goods. Convention with Great Britain against the slave trade, March 18.
Visit of La Fayette, and his triumphal progress through the U. S.—Congress votes him a township, and 200,000 dollars.
Opening of the great Erie canal, 303 miles in length, connecting the waters of the great western lakes with (be Atlantic ocean at New York.
John Qcincy Adams, president, 1825,
chosen by the ‘ federal republican’ party—equivalent to the ‘ Whigs’ of England, and opposed to u/fra-Deniocracy.
1826 Death of ex-presidents Adams and Jefferson, on the same day, July 4. 1828 Modification of the Tariff (superseded 1882).
Andrew Jackson, president, 1829-37.
bead of the democratic party, whose system he favours—opposes the banking system.
Chesapeake and Delaware canal opened.
1880	Treaty with Turkey—securing the free navigation of the Black sea. U. S. ports opened by law to British vessels from West India islands and
other colonies.
Population of the U. S. 12,856,171.
1881	Commercial treaty with Mexico.
Death of ex-president Monroe, July 4.
1882	Piracy of the Malays in Sumatra punished by the U. S. frigate Potomac.
New Tariff, increasing the protecting duties, passed June 28—resisted by the ' Nullifies’ of S. Carolina, who finally rescind their protest.
Commercial distress:
The president vetos the renewal of the charter of the U. S. bank on the ground of its being " dangerous and powerful monopoly ’’—failure of 06 local banks, and universal embarrassment -the war on tbe banks is supported by the house of representatives, but opposed by the mate.
1885 President’s message on the refusal of France to pay the acknowledged claims for indemnity to U. S.
France shuffles, on various pretences ; but a war is prevented by the indemnity being paid through the mediation of Great Britain, 1836.
Great fire in New York, Dec. 13th, 600 large buildings and property to the amount of 20,000,000 dollars destroyed.
1836 Death of ex-president Madison.
The national debt having been fiilly paid off, the surplus revenue of the U. S., amounting to about nine millions of dollars, is apportioned by congress among the several states.
Martin Van Buren, president, 1837.
Continues the policy of his predecessor; opposes the banking system, and advocates an universal and exclusive specie currency—great Commercial Distress—congress rescinds the 1 Specie-Circular,’ 1838, the banks generally resume specie payments, and confidence is again restored.
1888 President’s proclamation against all connivance with the rebels in Canada.
Condition of the United States in 1839.
Generally peaceful and prosperous.
Population (estimated) .	.	.	.	15,500,000
Square miles of territory	....	1,570,000
Exports, in 1836,....................... 128,663,040 dollars.
Imports, 1836,.......................... 189,980,085	„
Government revenue, 1835,	.	.	.	35,430,000	„
„ expenses, including army and navv,	17,005,000	„
Banking capital, 1835,..................'	140,000,000
The Spanish-American colonies, soon after the French invasion of Spain in 1808, begin a series of struggles for independence. Morillo, with an army of 10,000 men, is sent against them, but after a long and bloody contest, the Spaniards are expelled, and their possessions now form the republics of Mexico, Central America, and Texas in North America; and New Granada, Venezuela, Equator, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, La Plata, Uruguay, and Paraguay in South America.
Leading events, of these revolutions:
1810	First revolt—confederation of Venezuela formed by Mexico, Peru, Buenos AyTes, and Carraccas.
1811	Bogota, or New Granada, independent.
1813 Bolivar. Commander-ln-chlef, 1816.
1818 Chili freed by San Martin.
Republic of Colombia, 1819, formed by the union of Venezuela and Carraccas—Bolivar president.
1820	Morillo returns to Spain.
1821	Peru and Guatemala independent.
1822	Brazil declared independent of Portugal—Peter I. emperor. Mexico independent—Iturride emperor—banished 1823.
1823	Mexico a republic—Bolivar commander-in-chief in Peru.
1825	Upper Peru independent, under the name of Bolivia.
1826	Paez rebels against Bolivar.
1828	Bolivar dictator of Colombia—arrests Santander for conspiracy.
Oriental republic of Uruguay (Banda Oriental) independ.
1829	Contest between Colombia and Peru referred to the U. S. Revolution in Peru— Gamarra president.
Spanish invasion of Mexico defeated by Santa Anna.
Venezuela separated from Colombia—Paez president.
Slavery abolished in Mexico.
1830	Bolivar resigns all his offices, but is rechosen president of Colombia—dies, Dec. 13.
1831	First congress of Venezuela.
Brazil made a federative monarchy, with a legislative assembly.
New Granada made a separate state—Gen. Santander president.
1832	Revolution in Monte-Video, Uruguay.
Slave trade abolished in Brazil.
Santa Anna president of Mexico.
1835	Texas, having been settled chiefly by adventurers from the U. S., revolts against Mexico on the slave-nolding question.
1836	Texas declared independent of Mexico.—In the course of the struggle, the Mexican president, Santa Anna, is taken prisoner, and sent home, via Washington.
Ships in navy Standing army Miles of railway Miles of canal Miles of post roads Number of colleges
52 8,221 1,671 2,757 27,578,620 95
Pupils in common schools, in proportion to the population, 1 to 7.
Central and South America.
Kingdom of Haytl.
Island of St. Domingo.
Revolution 1771.
Negroes declared free, and maintain possession of the island against the whites and the English, 1793-97 — whites emigrate.
Independent republic under Toussaint l’Ouvertore, 1793-97.
French expedition.
Declaration of the independence of the kingdom of Hayti, 1803.
Dessalines, king, 1805, 6 New constitution.
Christopher, chief of the negroes, president 1806—becomes king, as Henry I. 1811-20.
Petion president of the Mulat-toes in the north, till 1818— Boyer succeeds.
820 Insurrection—Henry kills himself—Boyer president of the whole island.
Chiefs of the Republics formed in the Spanish, Portuguese, and French possessions in America.
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Tbe Canada*
Test Act repealed, 1764.
The colony thrives under a mild government, and the blessings of civil and religious liberty.
Colonisation of Upper Canada. Representative constitution, 179 L These colonies remain faithful to England during her struggle with the United States, 1812-15.
1884 Ferment in Lower Canada on account of the unpopularity of the legislative council— seventy resolutions passed in the legislative assembly condemnatory of lord Aylmer the governor, and of Mr. Stanley’s despatches.
1835	Earl Gosford goes out as governor and head of a commission to investigate and redress their grievances.
1836	May, house of assembly dissolved by Sir F. Head, for stopping the supplies — new session opened by earl Gosford in Sept., dissolved for its opposition to government.
Resolutions of the British parliament.
1837	Extraordinary session, convoked by earl Gosford, dissolved, as impracticable.
Rebellion i
Riots at Montreal, between the partisans of Papineau and royalists — Dec. conflict at St. Eustace, rebels lay down their arms — insurgents in Upper Canada, under Mackenzie, defeated by Sir F. Head.
Sir Geo. Arthur appointed governor of Upper Canada in place of Sir F. Head.
1838	Earl of Durham governor-general, and “Her Majesty’s High Commissioner,” with mil powers to redress grievances, punish rebels, &c., in both provinces.
April 12. He decrees the execution of two of the rebel leaders, and banishes the other prisoners to Bermuda.
This and other acts having been censured and annulled by the British house of lords, Durham resigns and returns home, Nov.
I, leaving
Sir John Colbome at the head of affairs in Lower Canada. Several new insurrectionary movements in Nov. and Dec. aided by considerable numbers of volunteers from New York and other border states—the rebels defeated at Prescott, and about seventy taken prisoners ; and again repulsed at Malden, Upper Canada.
1839	Nine Canadian prisoners, taken as rebels in 1837, tried in the court of Queen’s Bench in London.
1792
b
c
5G
Table xixy
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
A. C. to 1450.
r chieftains became permanent military leaders; and, after the foondatlon of various
.	.	...	—------became chief civil magistrates also—Monarchies became effectively established.
le beneficial or feudal system now took the place of the ancient republican system. According to the former, every freeman had his share (allod, allotment) in the djvision of the conquered country—all took part in the general assemblies (the WUtenagemoit of the Saxons, the ttelds of March of the Franks, the Althings of Scandinavia, &c.), as well as in the election of kings, making of laws, deciding on war and peace, judgments, &c. According to the new system, the king grants to the nobles, bis nearest companions, the possession of lands as loans for life, upon condition of their affording him certain aid in war. These, his vassals, obtain likewise the highest offices at court, as well as baronies, governorships of provinces, marches, and counties, as marquisses, counts, dukes, Sic.—all however as loans, and only for life or during pleasure. Origin of aristocracy as a power in the state. Complete formation of four distinct classes of society—nobility, freemen, proprietors, slaves.
Thrones at Ibis period were elective in certain families. To the family of the founders a preference was naturally given, and, unless there was some defect of mind or body, the eldest son was usually elected, and thus by degrees hereditary succession grew iuto use.
In this period the supreme power was divided between the king, the nobles, and the people.
The old Inhabitants of the conquered countries, Romans, Britons, &c. are everywhere degraded to an inferior caste.
*76 Overthrow of the Western Bmplrei gradual formation of new kingdoms by the German and Slavonian settlers upon the ruins of the Roman empire.
486 Rise of the feudal system in France under Clovis.
561 Decline of the Merovingian kings of the Franks, and rise of the Mayors of the palace: these, from mere officers of the court, become chief ministers of state, of the army, and treasury; they are elected by the people, and stand as mediators between them and the crown. 568 Rise of the feudal system in Italy upon the invasion of the Lombards, who entirely overthrow the old Roman municipal system, which the Ostrogoths had preserved—the kingdom of the Lombards was the first regularly formed feudal state of the West.
632 Establishment of the Khalifat.
In this dignity the highest spiritual and worldly powers were united. A principle which prevails In the East to the present day—while in Christendom and kings have often been opposed to the Roman pontiffs.
stays the progress of the Arabs in 752 Overthrow of the Merovingian dynasty by the Mayors of the palace, and elevation of the Carlovingian.
Government.
ripfft Period i Republican Patriarchal System, to the introduction of kings in the fifth century.
The great German nation, divided into numerous tribes, had nothing more than a kind of democratlcal clan government. The highest power resided In the great body of the people—every freeman had a share In legislation—all took part in questions of war and peace. They had kings or chieftains chosen by the people from particular families, forming a kind of honorary nobility, but with no positive privileges: other chiefs, both for war and the administration of Justice, were elected by the
o fixed division of lands existed.
to posi >r chiel
The people, in this period, t
Second Period i Monarchical, Patriarchal, and Feudal System, upon the formation of new kingdoms in the fifth century.
ir or expedition which they had been chosen t( e all in all.
Upon the settlement of the German tribes In the conquered lands, the w kingdoms, and the union of various tribes and people into settled states, they so Tne	-..-a_______*___1. .L _..l___e _______:__.____
General
Politics.
Legislation and Jurisprudence.
10 League of the ! First Patriarchal Period. Cheruski in the Primeval legislation among the north, and Marco- i ancient German tribes upon the manni in the south.! principle “every one is master J of his herd."
200 Great league of The supreme right of Judgment resided Alemanni, Goths, ln ,he body of the people.
Franks, and Sax-	_	_
ons	Second Period.
The kings obtain the highest judicial power, but the making and administration of the laws still remain in the hands of the people and public judges.
449 Anglo-Saxon conquest of England.
The Khalifs have dominion in three parts of the world.
The fundamental principle Is that every one shall be tried by hie peers or equals.
Written laws are compiled among the nations of German origin
—first by the Visigoths in Spain, and Salian Franks in the fifth century—the Burgundians and Anglo-Saxons in the sixth—the Bavarians, Alemanni, and Lombards iu the seventh.
711 Kingdom of the The Salic laws of France were pro-Arabians in Spain, j bably compiled under Clovis.
533 The Justinian code.
732 Charles Martel
Europe by his victory ' at Tours, 723.
or
TBS
WIST1BV
IKIIRI
aoo	RIVIVAL
The Emperor supreme lord and protector of the Western Empire.
827 Egbert first king of England—840 Piast, first duke of Poland—862 Rurik, first grand-prince of Russia—863 Gorm, the elder, first king of Denmark—Eric Edmundson, first king of Sweden—875 Harald Harfragre, first king of Norway.
Third Period i Aristocratic Feudal System, from the ninth century.
The nobility, first in France nnder the weak successors of Charlemagne, make their estates, offices, and titles hereditary. The ancient republican government gives place to a new system, the principal feature of which is an hereditary nobility, which, with the clergy, become the dominant order in the state [p. 8, e f].
884 The French nobility obtain from Charles the Fat the right of resistance to the king, when his acts are illegal.
887 Epoch of the feudal system in F ranee: fiefs, duchies, &c. declared hereditary—the dignity of earl hereditaiy in England about the same time. 962 Second revival of the Western Empire under Otho the Great.
Germany had become split into six great duchies, Saxony, Thuringia, Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, and Lorraine, and many lesser nobles.
987 Overthrow of the Carlovingian dynasty in France, and establishment of the Capetian-^the French monarchy is divided among forty great nobles, the king nothing more than the first among them.
Use of free republics In Italy—1056 Milan constitutes itself into a free republic—Lombardy, Tuscany, and Romagna are in a short space filled with free cities, in which the republican municipal system prevails over the feudal—see p. 10, f.
1066 Borman Conquest of Borland under William—introduction of the feudal system—England is divided into 60,000 great baronies and under fiefs, of which the king retains 1400. The kings from this time have been feudal chiefs (sovereigns) of England; to them belong all the land and soil: the people subjects [see p. 12 c].-1077 Great temporal power of the Pope [12 c, 13 a, etc.]
Fourth Period i Representative Government, from the time of the Crusades—feudal system continued.
Emancipation and gradnai restoration of the third estate from the time of the crusades—called with the clergy and nobility to parliament. Cities, growing rich by trade and industry, are favoured by the kings, as a check to the too great power of the nobility, and for purposes of taxation. Subjection and oppression of the fourth order, the agricultural labourers, over whom the aristocracy exercise almost supreme control—they only obtain political rights In the three northern states.
Crowns hereditary—A sort of balance arises between king, lords, and commons, but the aristocracy greatly predominate.
1101 First Charter of Corporation granted by Henry I. of England.
London obtains the right to elect Its own sheriff and Justice, with many other commercial and fiscal immunities.
Representative government: William the Conqueror, 1070, causes twelve persons skilled in the customs of England, to be chosen from each county, to instruct him respecting their laws.
1125 The German emperor Lothaire is pre-elected by forty nobles from the four nations of Franks, Saxons, Swabians, and Bavarians.
City deputies (the first of all Europe) are called to the national assembly of Aragon before the middle of this century.
Rise of City Corporations in France under Louis VI.
1172 Formation of the Grand Council of Venice, the real sovereign of the republic.
Composed of 480 members chosen annually by twelve tribunes, or grand electors, who are chosen by the people, two in each of the six sections into which the republic is divided. More than four members could not be elected from one family. As corporations tend naturally towards aristocracy, the same persons were generally re-elected, and were succeeded by their children. The councillors moreover having the appointment of the doge and magistrates, and being mostly of high birth, easily usurped the right of nominating their own electors, and also of confirming or rejecting their successors before they resigned their office. Thus the annual elections soon became nugatory, and the democratic spirit of the Venetian government gradually changed into aristocracy (see 1297). The Grand Council gave the first example of the creation of a body of Judges, numerous, irremovable, and independent.
1179 The doge Is deprived of the executive government, which is now given to the senate, composed of sixty members, over which he presides—this has the right of peace and war, of imposing taxes, and the management of all domestic and foreign affairs, submitting them for deliberation to tbe great counciL—The election of the doges, councillors, and magistrates was an intricate system, partly by lot, and partly by ballot.
Commencement of the consolidation of the great fiefs in France under Philip August, the first step towards hereditary despotism.
12X6 Kagnt Charta signed by king John : complete triumph of the baronial aristocracy in England under this king and the next [see p. 10 e].
1220 and 1232 The privileges of the temporal and spiritual princes of Germany extended by Frederic II.
1222	Charter of Hungary granted by Andrew II., the foundation of Hungarian liberty [see p. 17 g].
1223	The peasantry, for the first time, called to parliament in Norway.
300 years’ struggle of the Guelfs and Ghibelines in Italy.
About 1250 the power of the Emperor of Germany declines, and the empire becomes an aristocracy, in the hands of many hundred greater and lesser princes—the higher aristocracy of seven electoral princes soon pre-eminent—increasing power of the German cities.
1265	First regular parliament in England, in which two knights for each shire, two members for each city, and burgesses for every borough are summoned—in 1225 parliament had connected the redress of grievances with the granting of supplies. Increase of the power of the landed aristocracy.
City deputies, and (about 1280) country deputies, called to the Danish parliament. Introduction of hereditary nobility in Sweden.
1266	Democratic government in Florence.
1273 First patent of nobility granted by Philip the Hardy in France [see p. 16 f]—first blow at the landed aristocracy.
1282 First charter (handveste) in Denmark [see p. 17 b].
1287 The barons of Aragon obtain the right of resisting the king if he attacks the liberties of the nation.
1291 City deputies called to the German parliament—1309 Three imperial colleges, an electorate, a princely, and one for the cities.
1297 Decree, closing the Grand Council of Venice: which changes its democratic government into a close hereditary aristocracy.
The right of electing, or rather of re-electing the Grand Connell, ia transferred from the tribunes to the Council of Forty; but no one can be elected whose paternal ancestors have not enjoyed the same honours—thus the whole power remained in the hands of the aristocracy, the doge a mere cipher—no new man to have power— the golden book, containing the names of the privileged class, only opened in times of great necessity, in order to obtain money by the insertion of new names.
1311 Council of ten in Venice, appointed to watch over the nobles.
1308 Revolution of the Swiss, who revolt from Austria.—1309 First national assembly of nobles, burghers, and peasants in Sweden.
1320 New Handveste (charter) of Denmark. Aristocratic [see p. 19 c].
About 1341 English parliament increases in power? and establishes several important privileges [see p. 18 f]. 1343 It is divided into two
lifat in Spain. I the church, schools, and tbe poor. OHAUIMAI
Pope head of the church.
843 Dissolution of the empire of Charlemagne by the treaty of Verdun: formation of new Christian feudal kingdoms.
1006
[see p. 13 a b,
15 e, 17 i].
Beginning of the rivalry between France Sf England.
1204-1261 Latin kingdom of the Crusaders.
1238 Two hundred years’ dominion of the Mongols in Russia.
1250-1517 Empire of the Mameluxes in Egypt.
1258 Overthrow of the Khalifat of Bagdad by the Mongols, who rule in Persia & China.
1265 Struggle between the Emperors and Popes for dominion in Italy.
1295 First Letters of Marque granted to privateers against the Portuguese by Edward I.
1305-76 Residence of the Popes at Avignon dependent upon France—
Decline of Papal predominance over Europe.
1308 Republic of Switzerland.
1328 Struggle for the French crown between the kings of England, and the French house of Valois—120 years’ war, which ends with the loss to the English of all their French possessions.
houses, and takes nearly its present form. Ministers answerable to it for their conduct. First speaker chosen 1377.
1348 Victory of the king of Aragon over the disaffected barons—right of resistance anulled—the justiza become mediators between the king and the states, as the mayors of the palace had done in France, and the elector of the Rhine in Germany.
1350-1474 Disputes between the barons and crown in Castile, from Peter the Cruel to Ferdinand and Isabella.
1355	Capitulation of Louis of Hungary upon his election to the crown of Poland.
Formation of the Polish Conetitution, a republican monarchy—complete equality of the nobles, who exclude all burghers and peasants from civil rights.
1356	Golden bull of the German empire [see p. 18 g h].	1357 Great outbreak in Paris, headed by Marcels.
Insurrections of the peasantry: tbe Jacquerie in France, 1358—stiuggle of the aristocracy and democracy in Germany, 1376—the peasantry .	___
under Wat Tyler in England. John Bull, at this time desirous of liberty and equality, sang, “ When Adam delved and Eve span, where s^e^^emnaTk^nd tco* then the gentleman"—1382 Subjection of the third estate in France by Charles VI., after the great insurrection of the Maillotins— Norway’underMargaret, insurgent Flemings under Artevelde suppressed.	I
Municipal corporations and guilds suppressed in France—restored 1415.	1419 Rise of the
1405 Representative government in Hungary [see p. 21 k]—no feudal system, but still an overpowering influence of the landed aristocracy. | gf^at quan-el be-„ r ,	„ , ,	„ _ .	, _L , . v.	tween Catholics and
1410 Struggles of the houses of Orleans and Burgundy m trance—similar to that of the Roses in England.	I Protestants.
1429 Electors for counties in England limited to forty shilling freeholders, excluding the great majority of the people who had hitherto voted (see Hallam, iii. 165.)
1454-85 Wars of the Red and White Roses—houses of York and Lancaster—destruction of the ancient noble families of England.	|
1357 The Turks in Europe.
Change qfthe republics Of Italy into hereditary principalities.
1397-1524 Union of Calmar—
800 Laws (capitularies) of Charlemagne [see p. 8 g].
Third Period.
847 Territorial jurisdiction under thefeudal system:
the great barons, independent of the monarch, settle their disputes by private warfare. In lesser affairs the holders of fiefs have the right of jurisdiction in different degrees: the greater barons have the power of life and death ; the lesser fiefs can not judge in 'capital cases, but send their criminals to the court of the superior lord. Introduction (but slowly) of Roman and canon law.
900 Laws of Alfred the Great:
England divided into counties, hundreds, and tilhings. The county courts, held monthly, become the great safeguard of the civil rights of Englishmen. Here the bishop, the earl, or sheriff, administered public justice—trial by jury (I) Frank-pledges.
1050 Laws of Edward the Confessor — probably the customs and usages of the Anglo-Saxons, the foundation of the English common law.
Study of the civil law revived by the discovery of the Pandects at Amalfi, 1135. It comes into use in Germany and Italy, partly in France, &c., but is rejected in England, where the common law prevails—see Glanville, p. 15 b. Cnatltation of Janices of Assise, about 1177. is in most other feudal countries, so in England there had been a standing council, called the king’s court, which assisted the kings of England in the collection and management of the revenue, in the administration of justice, and other public business. It was composed of the great officers—tbe chief Jnsticiary, the chancellor, the constable, marshal, chamberlain, steward, treasurer, and others. The business of this court became divided and done in different places, whence grew the separate courts of King’s Bench, Exchequer, and Common Pleas.
As few could bring their cases from distant parts of the kingdom to this place for trial (and perhaps becanse the English loved to be tried by their neighhonring freeholders,) Henry 11. established itinerant Judges to try civil and criminal cases within each county. Twelve Judges go the circuit twice a year.
1179 Formation of a body of independent judges, in Venice. The Council of Forty.
J180 The Vehm in North. Germ. About 1200 Inquisition process— at first against heretics.
1234 Decretals of pope Gregory IX. published by Pennaforte. 1220 Legislation of Jangez Khan in Mongolia.
1240 Legislation of Waldimir in Denmark.
1246	Institution of the Council of Cast ile as a high court of justice
1247	Aragon code of laws.
1260 The civil law translated and brought into use in France by St. Lonis— Code of St. Louis, the foundation of the French laws, 1270.
Institution of justices of the peace under Edward III.
1302 The parliament of Paris, the supreme court of justice for the crown domains, becomes permanent. Fourteen similar parliaments become by degrees formed In the provinces.
1320 No laws without parliament in Denmark.
1327 Code of laws for Sweden. The civil law comes into almost general use [see p. 19 b]. Judicial torture comes into use. 1425 Portugal code.
In Sicily the barons obtain unlimited ---------rer their subjects.
a
b
c
A. C. to 1450.
THE CIVILISATION, ETC. OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
57
Finance, Taxes, etc.	War, Marine, etc.	Agriculture, Peasantry, etc.	Architecture.
First Period. No frofemen among the ancient German nations paid taxes. It was only the slaves or conquered who did not take part in the wars, and of whom have been formed our present tradesmen and peasants, who paid and provided for the army by husbandry and handicraft. Upon settling in the conquered land the kings lived upon their private and royal domains, the tribute of the subjected nations, protection money and tolls, and the free-will offerings of the people in the yearly national assemblies. Under the feudal system the sovereign received payments from his vassals for reliefs, fines upon alienation, and escheats; and besides these, aids, which he was entitled to call for upon certain occasions; such as for expeditions to the Holy Land, marrying his sister, eldest son, or his daughter, the taking possession of his land, to redeem his person from captivity, etc. Besides these, in England and some other countries, the lord had the wardship of his tenants and theprojits of their estates during their minority; and the marriage, or right of tendering a husband to his female wards, whom they could not reject without forfeiture—this was afterwards extended to male wards, and became a very lucrative source of extortion to the crown.—As extraordinary means, often had recourse to by the kings of England and France, were the persecution of the Jews —debasement of the coin— exactions from the commons, and particularly from the inhabitants of towns. The feudal aids were the origin of taxation, whose purpose they served, till the craving necessities of monarchs and states substituted heavier burthens in their stead. 1154 Scutages introduced in England by Henry II.— a feudal tax by which men relieved themselves from personal service in the wars. Second Period. Free grants or taxes, with the consent of the states or parliament. 1218 Magna Ctaarta and Statute of Edward I., 1297 —No taxes without consent ofparliament. 1222 and 1234 Two decrees of Andrew II. secure the Hungarians from taxes— the king binds himself to live upon his domain — . The nobility of Sweden free from taxes after 1276— No taxes without consent of parliament in Denmark 1320—in France 1338. 1345 First salt-tax (the Gabelle) in France on account of the wars against the English—long struggle of the states-general and monarchs on this subject— the latter conquer and become absolute — the last 6tand made by the states was under Louis XI. Taxes, with consent, in the various states of Germany during the fifteenth century —Bavaria, 1425—Saxony, 1488—Wirtemberg, 1487 —Brandenburg, 1472. The first imperial tax was the general penny levied foi the Hussite war, 1427.	First Period. The earliest system of public defence called upon every man, and especially every landholder, to protect his country. Second Period : the feudal system, which compelled every man holding lands to peiform military service for them to his suzerain. This system did for the petty quarrels of noblea, bat was no way lilted fdr national wan. Customs, founded upon the poverty of the leaser nobles, limited their martial duties to forty days—hence they could undertake an expedition, but not a campaign; could burn an open town, but not besiege a fortress. This led to the hiring of soldicn, and the receiving of fines {scutages) from tenants in lieu of their attendance. 812 Heerban of Charlemagne : by which every landholder is compelled to serve in the army when called upon. 890 English fleet of Alfred against the Danes. Third Period. Hired troops became substituted for the feudal. Canute and Harold II. are said to have had Danish soldiers in pay—William the Conqueror and William Rufus both hired soldiers, but they formed but a very small part of an army till the French wars, when Henry II. and Richard I. retain their followers, at a stipulated payment, after the expiration of their forty days’ feudal service, and both they and Philip August hire large bodies of mercenaries (Brabacons), which, however, were always disbanded at the conclusion of Great fleets of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, during the Crusades—serving as transports for men and provisions to the Holy Land. Burgher troops of the Italian cities in their contest against the Emperor, and in their quarrels with each other. In these cases the cities seem to have poured ont their whole population as a loosely organised militia—at the battle of Arbi, 1260, the Gnelf Florentines had 30,000 foot and 3000 horse. About this time they begin to hire regular troops, which afterwards gives rise to the free companies. Genoa hires the count of Savoy with 2000 horse, 1225—Florence 500 French lancers, 1282, etc. 1224 Army of 10,000 Arab troops in the pay of the emperor Frederic II. in Sicily. 1229 Immense army of Octai. great khan of the Mongols, consisting of 1,500,000 cavalry. 1247 First fleet of war in Castile at the conquest of Seville by the Moors. 1260 Burgher troops in Aragon for the protection of the public roads. 1315 Battle of Morgarten: the first modem instance of the superiority of infantry—1300 Swiss foot defeat 20,000 Austrian cavalry. 1339	Rise of Free Companies ( Condottieri) in Italy: the citizens remain at home and hire troops —habit soon renders pay and plunder the great motive of the latter, hence companies become formed willing to enter into the service of any party, and to go from one to the other without shame or regret After a time, from lack of employment in times of peace, they set up for themselves, and levy contributions where they can. The Bands of Guarnieri 1348—Fra. Moriale and Conrad Lando, 1353—but the most famous was Sir John Hawkwood, [see p. 18 i,] an Englishman, and the first distinguished commander in Europe since the fall of the Western Empire : the earliest military genius of modem times | —New school of tactics in Italy, introduced by Albaric di Barbiano, who forms the Company of St. George, about 1379, famous for a 1 succession of great generals. 1340	Naval victory of Helvoet Sluys — estar I blishes the English superiority at sea [18 e]. '.Superiority of the English armies in the French 1 wars—Battles of Cressy 1346, Poitiers 1856, I and Agincourt 1415 [see p. 18 e, 20 d]. j Won, not bv the nobility of England who ; were fully matched in the ranks of France, but 1 by the intrepid steadiness of the English soldiers, | and the bold yeomen who drew the bow with j strong and steady arm. About 1850 great strength of the burgher armies 1 in Germany—Aix la Chapelle and Strasburg 20.000	strong, Nuremburg 50,000. 1862 The Janizaries formed bv sultan Murad, the most formidable body of inmntry in Europe. Gunpowder comes into use. [See p. 19, b.] !In 1411, John duke of Burgundy had 4000 hand cannons as they were called—1449 the Milanese 20.000	muskets—these were supported on a rest, and chaiged with great delay. 1419—36 Paid militia in the wars of the Empire i against the Hussites. | The Infantry of the Hussites composed of enthusiasts, and ,! commanded by the celebrated generals Zisca and Phocop— these boorish rhnrls, as the Emperor called them, repeatedly 1 defeated the imperial cavalry. 1428 The fleet of the Hanse towns, 248 ships, manned by 12,000 marines.	The emigrations and wars which overthrew the Roman empire destroyed agriculture, and left the finest provinces of Europe unfruitful and desolate. Among the ancient German and Slavonic tribes all agricultural and handicraft labour was done by slaves. , About 476, etc., rise of soccage tenants, or such as were allowed to hold some portion of their lands in the conquered countries on con- . dilion of performing certain services, or yielding up a certain share of the produce: they were bound to the soil. This was the state to which the superior and noble classes were reduced, the poorer were all made slaves. From the fifth to the eleventh centuries land . was the least costly of all gifts—large grants were made to monasteries—the church lands were the best cultivated; the monks especially did good service to agriculture. 700 Mines worked in Bohemia and Hungary. 800 Agriculture and horticulture encouraged and protected by Charlemagne —both flourish in Spain under the Khalifs. Gold mines worked In Spain. Fine Arabian breed of horses in Spain, especially the Andalusian—the most noble racers of Europe have been produced by mixture with the Arabian and Persian blood. “ A respectable class of free soccagers, having, in general, full rights of alienating their lands, and holding them probably at a small certain rent from the lord of the manor, frequently occur in Domesday-book,” (Hallam)—but the working peasantry still slaves, and subject to great oppressions. English agriculture in a very low condition. Richard de Rules improves agriculture about Spalding, etc. First inclosttre of lands at Spalding; soon after at Croyland. The state of agriculture wretched under the feudal system—but as that declines improvement takes place. From the time of Henry II. the villein, so called, was absolutely dependent on his lord's will, compelled to unlimited services, and neither had, nor could acquire any property— he could not buy his freedom, all he had or could earn belonged to his lord. In Aragon some villeins were so unprotected, that, as Vitalis says, they might be divided into pieces by the sword among the sons of their master. Gradual emancipation of slaves, a consequence of the Crusades. About 1100 excellent agriculture in the Netherlands—many Dutch and Flemings are settled as colonists in Germany and England, where they obtain grants of land at fixed rents. 1200-1300 Much waste land brought into cultivation in England. Lombardy, though very populous, exports j large quantities of com. 1236 Statute of Merton—the lord may enclose the waste lands of his manor, provided he leave sufficient common pasture for the freeholders. About 1300 nine or ten bushels of com to the acre was considered a full average crop— sixpence an acre the avorage rent for arable, and a shilling or eighteen-pence for meadow land—Exportation prohibited till the time of Henry VI., when it was allowed so long as the price of wheat did not exceed six shillings and eightpence, or barley three shillings the quarter. In the reigns of Edward III. and Henry VI. English peasants were better paid than at present—a labourer earned one shilling and sixpence a week, with which he could buy a bushel of wheat and twenty-four pounds of meat—1850 Wages of reapers fixed at threepence a day, equal to five shillings of our money; in 1444, at fivepence, common labourers at threepence halfpenny, eaual to six shillings and cigntpence and four shillings and eightpence at present. The yearly wages of a chief hind or shepherd was equal to twenty pounds, with meat and drink. 1350 Agriculture and the peasantry protected in Poland and Hungary by Casimir and Louis the Great. General discontent of the peasantry in most parts of Europe occasioned by the insolence and oppression of the nobles : The Jacquerie in France, 1358—Wat Tyler’s rebellion in England, 1381—Flemings under Artevelde, 1382, troubles in Germany and Switzerland.	First Period—Early Christian Architecture. Modem Greek style in Constantinople—Ancient Gothic or Loinbardic in Italy—Saxon in England. The origin of the pointed arch of the Christians was the semi-circular of ancient Roman architraves. 325-334 Splendid churches, etc. of Constantine the Great at Constantinople—the Capitol, Forum, Hippodrome, etc.— Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Fourth and fifth centuries: celebrated Basilica at Rome, churches of St. Peter, (burnt down 1504,) of St. Paul, etc. Period of the Ostrogoths in Italy 493-553—Buildings of Theodoric by Greek artists; especially Aloysius of Padua. Palaces at Ravenna, Pavia, Verona, etc. 538 The present church of St. Sophia at Constantinople built by Justinian at an incredible cost—Anthenius the architect—It was called the second Solomon’s temple. It was the first churcli in the shape of a cross; has a splendid cupola anil four arcades; and became the finest specimen of the modern Greek style. Period of the Lombards in Italy, 568-774—Semicircular arches, with much grotesque sculpture — Principal churches: St. Giovanni at Boigo, ana St. Michele at Pavia. The modern Greek Lombard style was spread by the monks over the west of Europe. Contemporary were the church of St. Germain des Pres bv Childebert at Paris, 557—of St. Deny (the burial place of the French kings) by Dagobert, 630. In England, under the Saxons: church of Lindis-fame, Northumberland, with circular arches, 635—at Canterbury : Glastonbury : St. Albans : Winchester, etc. The Saxons bnllt many small, and some large cbnrches and monasteries in England.—Ecclesiastical architecture, though far more advanced than any other art, evinces the rudeness and poverty of the limes. In civil architecture the most ancient buildings we can trace in Britain are the forts, dans, peels, and castles, built on a natural eminence or an artificial mound of earth: as Couisborough castle in Yorkshire, and CasUeton in Derbyshire: the castles of Cornwall, etc. Second Period—Arabian and Saracenic Architecture. The characteristic of this style is the horseshoe arch: it flourished in the eighth century in Bagdad, etc., and was introduced into Spain and Sicily upon the conquest of these countries—785 Great mosque at Cordova; in the tenth century it attained Its highest perfection [see p. 10, c.}—celebrated palace of the Alhambra (completed 1348). About 800 Buildings of Charlemagne, churches and pa-laces, at Aix la Chapelle, iDgelheim, Tribur, and Nimeguen. Buildings in England towards the end of the Saxon and the beginning of the Norman period: 970 The celebrated cathedral of Ely—1011 The oldest part of Westminster Abbey—1060 Commencement of Canterbury cathedral by Lanfranc— 1078 The Tower of London—1086 Church at Lincoln. Origin of Freemasons' lodges in England: 926 General assembly of masons at York—from this beginning lodges spread all over Europe during the middle ages. Numerous churches, minsters, etc., built in Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Venice, etc., 919—1024. Foundation of baronial Castles throughout Christendom during the feudal system. 1067 The watch tower of Louis the Springer, etc. Numerous Norman castles built in England during the twelfth century. Something of a fresher spirit arose in Italy with its republican institutions after the time of the cmp. Henry IV. Pisa, favoured by its trading connections with,the East and the remains of antiquity found within its walls, particularly excelled. Cathedral of Pisa 1063—the Baptlstory 1153—Hanging tower 1174, etc. Formation of a proper style in the Norman part of Lower Italy during the twelfth century. A mixture of the Nonnan, Gothic, and Saracenic elements—Roger’s chapel in the palace at Palermo—the cathedral of that city 1185, and that of Monreale 1170. Third Period.—The English, or modern Gothic : With its characteristic pointed arches, thin, highly ornamented columns, etc.—The change into this style, at nearly the same time, in every part of Europe, remains to be accounted for. It seems to have received its first character in England among the Normans, and to have been spread over the continent by lodges of freemasons, 13tli to the 16tli cculury. Minsters, etc., in England— St. Botolph’s priory, Colchester, 1110 —Temple church, London, 1183—York, the largest church in this style, 1187-1462—Westminster, 1220-1285, the burial-place of our kings and great men—Salisbniy cathedral, 1220-St. Stephen’s chapel, 1347, etc. Germany.—Celebrated minster of Strasburg, 1015-1439—of Cologne, 1248-1322—of Vienna, 1100-1433—of Nuremberg (completed 1477.) France.—Notre-Daroe, 1161 —Rouen, 1100 — Rheiras, 1211 —Amiens, 1220—Abbeville, etc. Spain.—Splendid cathedral of Burgos, 1217-1442-Toledo, 1132, finished 1217—Barcelona, 1299. Cathedral of Upsal, in Sweden, 1287-1435. Italy.—Magnificent church at Sienna in layers of black and white marble ; dedicated, 1180 ; the splendid portal, 1284—Church of the- Holy Frauciscan at Assisi, 1228. New style of architecture formed in Italy, after the Gothic, in the thirteenth century, in which the architects of Pisa and Floreuce followed the rules of the ancient architects. Arnolfo di Lapo of Florence, the father of modem architecture in Italy ; architect of the Palazzo Vecchio, the church of S. Croce 1294, and the magnificent duomo at Florence, 1298, finished by Giotto and Brunelleschi. Beautiful church, S. M&ria Novella, at Florence, 1279. 1385 Church at Batalha in Portugal, by David Hacket, an Irish architect. The great church at Antwerp, 1422. Italian Architects of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. At Florence.—Giotto, 1276-1336; Andre* di Cionb, 1329-1389; Filippo Brunelleschi, 1373-1444, uuder Cosmo de Medici, of the palace Pitti, etc.—Benedetto da Majano, 1444-98. Home.—Leon Battista Alberti, 1398-1472, architect to pope Nicholas V., beautiful church at Rimini, and a celebrated writer on architecture— Giulio da Majano, 1455, palace of St. Marco at Rome, triumphal arch to the Castel A’uooo at Naples. Venice.—1304-7 the arsenal—1355 the Palazza Nuooo, by Filippo Calendario.
b	c
58 Table xx.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES
A. D. 1450—1650.
Government.
Fifth Period— From about 1450 to 1789 most of the sovereigns of Europe attain to absolute power, bp the depression of the nobility.
Causes: 1st. The discovery of the new world and its treasnres—the reformation, and consequent seizure of church property, furnish princes with money, independently of the people, 2ndly. After the discovery of gunpowder, cities no (oncer safe behind their walls, nor nobles in their armour; and fortified castles are more easily reduced under the authority of princes, whose despotic sway is, 3rdly, erectly aided by the introduction of standing armies, permanent taxes, etc.
Rational liberty and parliamentary government decline.
Monarchs dram around them the fallen nobility, who, deprived of their former warlike power, leave their baronial halls to seek places and distinction at court, (now settled in the capitals,) or appointments in the standing armies.
The luxury of the court and nobility rises to a high pitch: the latter In most of the states, already freed from knightly service, find means to exempt themselves, partly or altogether, from military service and taxation.
The lower ordert, unfortunate in their attempts for liberty, both in the struggles of the cities and peasantry, are forced to bear nearly all the burdens of the state—taxes, oppressions, military services, etc. The power of despotic kings and ministers, Joined to much that is still left of the aristocratic tyranny of the feudal system, shut them out from all the rights of citizenship, and leave them little else but slaves.
In tAi* period the king it nearly all: the aristocracy little: the people nothing.
England forms scarcely an exception; for though her free institutions are preserved, parliament becomes first the tool of the monarch, and then of the aristocracy.
In Sweden, Poland, and Hungary, the aristocracy still maintain the upper hand.
Russia, with its unlimited despotism, enters into the European system, still adding by its example and influence I be evil principle already too rampant.
1461 First depression of the aristocracy in France—the states rarely assembled.
1468 First meeting of the Polish county-deputies at Petrikau—
Instead of the former assemblies of 100,000 nobles on horseback in the election-field near Wanaw, they are now n presented by a body of 400—see p. 22 g.
1472 Ivan of Russia takes the title of sole ruler and czar of all the Russias: oriental despotism. 1475 Sten Sture, protector of Sweden, favours the cities and peasants, in order to humble the aristocracy and clergy.
Depression of the aristocracy, 1479, etc.:
1470 In Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella, under whom the twelve principalities are united into one—1481 In Portugal by John II.; many nobles beheaded—in England nnder the Tudors, especially Henry VIII.; the wars of the Roses had greatly thinned and impoverished the old English peerage—14S7 in Naples by Ferdinand I.-1401 etc. .	. dominions, pope Borgia—1405, etc. Germany, by the perpetual peace—1502 in Norway, by John, king
’"i," -ft*- ,k-	-<■	part of the nobles to death : since this time the nobility has
|y country of Europe without nobles—1528 In Sweden, see
1495 Poyningis Act in Ireland—private hostilities declared illegal—all statutes of the English parliament up to this time to have effect in Ireland—no future parliament to be held in Ireland without the king’s license.
Insurrection of peasants in Germany: in Alsace, 1502—in Wirtemburg and Hungary, 1514.
1515 Unlimited monarchy in France under Francis I. after the consolidation of the great fiefs.
The progress of royal power in France was exactly the reverse of what it was in Germany; in the latter, during the Saxon dynasty, there were one mighty emperor and only six great dukes, but upon the fall of the Hohenstaufen many hundred independent nobles under a very limited emperor; while France, under the weak Capetians, had forty great vassals, but under Francis only one unlimited king.
1519	First Capitulation upon the election of Emperor in Germany, at the election of Charles V. p. 28 b.
1520	Great insurrection of the Santa Junta of the Castilian cities—suppressed the following year by Charles V.—the nobility side with the Emperor.
Suppression of the aristocracy in Sweden by the massacre of the nobility at Stockholm under the Danish king, Christian the Bad.
The Danish kings lost Sweden by this massacre, as Gustavus Vasa secured the throne to himself by the revolution of 1523—new counts and lords were introduced by his son, Eric XIV.—see p. 28 f.
1524, 5 Great insurrection of the peasantry in Germany :
Miinter at their head—the great oppression of the nobles and ciergy its cause. The peasants demand the choice of their own clergy—abolition of tithes, or, if continued, a part to the poor—the rivers and woods to be open to all persons—meadows, etc. to revert to common pasture—feudal servitude to cease: 50,000 to 100,000 said to have been slain.
1528 Genoa, an aristocracy with a doge elected every two years.
1830, etc. Absolute monarchy In England under Henry VXXX., etc. The creation or a variety of new and unheard-of treasons places the life, liberty, and property of every individual within the power of the king. 1530 The king’s proclamations to have the force of laws. The parliament sinks to the lowest pitch of cowardice and servility, becoming the passive instrument of the blind, fierce, and fantastical Henry, in the enacting of penal laws, which for number, severity, and inconsistency, are unequalled in the annals of jurisprudence.
1531 The republic of Florence erected into an hereditary duchy by Charles V. for the Medici. 1536 The protestant princes of Germany, England, Denmark, and Sweden, seize upon Church property, and, quite in opposition to the original principles of the Reformation, usurp supreme spiritual authority.
This leads to the overthrow of the ancient Church aristocracy in Denmark and Sweden—in England it maintains, or perhaps increases its power.
1538 Last meeting of the Spanish Cortes of the first government—the king absolute—see p. 27 f. 1544 Swedish crown settled upon the male issue of Gustavus Vasa.
1546 Smalkaldic war of the German protestant princes and cities against the Emperor.
Charles V. breaks bis election capitulation by making, of himself, a treaty with the Pope ; by publishing a ban [alnst the Elector of Saxony, without a trial; and by the introduction of foreign troops.
1556 The Russian peasantry glebe adscripts, and declared to be the property of their lords.
1560 Despotism in Spain and Italy under Philip II.
1572 Overthrow of the Huguenot nobility of France by the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s eve, in which most of them are murdered.
1574 First Pacta Conventa in Poland, upon the accession of Henry of Valois to the throne.
The first foreign prince who reigned over the Poles since Louis of Hungary. By this compact the right of resistance was legalised—diets to be assembled every two years, etc.—see p. 33 a.
1576-98 Wars of the League in France: pretensions of Guise to the throne as descended from the Carlovingians.
1579 Revolution in the Netherlands, and separation from Spain:
It forms into an aristocratic republic under stadtholders, the sovereignty not being in tbe people bnt in the provincial ------ the body of knights, and the magistrates of the cities.
1599-1611 Ministry of Sully in France :
One of the greatest and most noble statesmen of modern times, and that in the most comprehensive sense of the word.
1602 In Spain the two higher ranks are no longer called to parliament, except upon extraordinary cases (to take the oath of allegiance, etc.)—the third estate only to grant taxes: in the Spauish principalities of Naples and Italy national assemblies gradually cease in the same way.
1614 Last meeting of the states-general in France.
1618 Great insurrection of Bohemian nobles against the house of Austria, which gives rise to the Thirty Years’ War.
1821 Overthrow of the aristocracy of Bohemia, after the victory of the emperor Ferdinand II. at the White mountain. Nearly all the nobles of Bohemia emigrate or are executed—their property confiscated, and bestowed on Austrian nobles.
1621 Rise of the great struggle in England between the king and parliament—the rights of the people against the divine right of kings—between the Puritans and James I.—formation of a regular opposition in the House of Commons—see p. 34 a, 38 a, 42 e.
Second humiliation of the aristocracy of France, under the administration of cardinal Richelieu, 1622-42, and rise of unlimited ministerial government—1634 First appointment of intendants, see p. 34 a: set aside in the time of the Fronde—re-established 1653 [which see].
1627 Austrian despotism in Germany:
Ferdinand II. foregoes the general assembling of the states of the empire, and only devoted to himself—he keeps up an army of 160,000 men to support him in bis t
16*2 Hint treat Revolution In England—the nobility and high Church party for absolutism; the. third estate for the parliament and constitutional government—see p. 34 a.
1647	Revolt in Naples under Masaniello, on account of excessive taxation—suppressed next year—14,000 executions.
1648	The independence of the republics of Holland and Switzerland acknowledged in the peace of Westphalia.
1648-53 Disturbances of the Fronde in France: the last struggle of the nobility against royal power—completely suppressed by Louis XIV. and Mazarine—34 b, 39 c.
1689 England a Republic—Cbarlea executed—no Honee of Lords till 1686.
Politics
and Foreign Relations.
Legislation
& Jurisprudence.
1455 In Poland no new law without parliament.
Period of absolute monarchies.
The nobility and people lose their power in ■natters of legislation, which now falls Into the hands of the mon-archs. The Roman and canon law is formally adopted as subsidiary law in the west and south of Europe. The secret tribunal of
despotism.
England alone i taius its ancient free institutions: its common law, trial by Jury, right of impeachment, etc. No inquisition, or nse of torture—see p. 10 b.
1486 The Star-Chamber established in England— this arbitrary court exists till 1641,
1488 Establishment of public peace in Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella—the holy Hermandad is made the highest law tribunal for the redress of wrongs.
Formation of a political balance of power in Italy by the Medici in Florence, the Papistry and Sforza it Milan and Venice.
The wise state-policy of Venice is proverbial.
For Just eleven centuries, from the election of its first doge (607), and from the firm establishment of its hereditary aristocracy by the great council, the black nobles of Venice steered, with wonderful dexterity, amid stormy the state bark: not even tbe Lcagin Cambray, by which it had to contend ag< half Europe, turned it from Its course—it only wrecked in the violent sea of the French Revolution.
1153 Conquest of Constantinople by tbe Turks.
1476	Russia free from the Moguls.
Rivalry of Trance and Spain till 1786 S—the Frenchman’s thirst for glory, and the Spaniard's vain desire for universal monarchy, deluge the countries of Europe with blood and misery.
1477	The rich Netherlands, upon the extinction of the male line of Burgundy, and the marriage of Maria and Maximilian, became the central point of French and Austrian policy, as Italy does 1404.
1692 Discovery of America.
Conquest of Granada: Spain drives the Saracens completely out of Europe.
Arrival and power of the Spaniards in theWest Indies, and of the Portuguese in the East—Goa the principal seat,
1510.
1500 Brazil colonised by the Portuguese—1508 Cuba by the Spanish.
1508	Empire of the Soofis in Persia.
1509	Foundation of a Spanish kingdom on the north coast of Africa by cardinal Ximenes.
1516 Machiavblli, m Principe),founder of the new Italian policy, which, adopted by Franee and Spain, after being improved by Bichelieu and Mazarine, generally prevails in the cabinets of Europe till the French Revolution.
1817 Tbe Reformation.
Vast Turkish empire upon sultan Selim’s great conquests in Asia and Egypt—acquires the khalifat.
Rise of the rivalry between the Turkish Sultans and the Persian Soofis, which lasts till 1639.
1525	Extensive empire of the Great Mogul in the East Indies.
1526	Bohemia and Hungary united to the House of Austria.
1529 First siege of Vienna by the Turks.
1533 Algiers and Tunis submit to the Turks—Tripoli, 1550.
1535 Spanish expedition of Charles V. to Tunis—1541 to Algiers.
1535 France, under Francis I., enters, for the first time, into relations with Turkey—1542 with the Northern powers, Denmark and Sweden: all Europe by degrees sides with France or Spain.
1541 Great political power of Turkey in Europe under Soliman the Magnificent—conquest of nearly all Hungary—Germany threatened.
1544 Peace of C respy between France and Spain—France shut out of Italy.
Foundation of tbe European balance of power.
Predominance of the House ofHapsburg:
which, in addition to the imperial throne,possesses Spain, the Netherlands, Naples, Sicily,
Milan, Hnngary and Bohemia, besides the immense territories In America: nniting the largest and richest provinces of the old and new worlds under one sceptre : “ an empire in which the sun never set.”
Progress of Charles V. and Philip II. towards universal monarchy.
1552 First blow at the predominance of the German House of Hapsbnrg, by Maurice,
Elector of Saxony, who, in league with the j selves—the king by protestant princes and Francis, compels tM* l°»es his high Ju-Charles to concede the treaty of Passau. dicial authority.
1556 Division of the dominions of Hapsbnrg | inm thc Austrian and Spanish families under icai TLo ~ ...............Philip Il.-stiU however 1041 lne
Finance.
1515 Sale of state offices began ... France by Francis I., in order to raise money for his Italian wars— in Spain by Charles V.
This was strictly forbidden in England in the time of Edward VI.
Under Francis I. the Italian wars raised the faille to above 14,000,000—In Spain, also, taxes much increased nnder Charles V.
Gold falls about one-third in value, in co.. sequence of the large quantities imported from America.
Spain said
60 millions of _	_______
been reckoned that the gold in circulation in the fifteenth century amounted to 400 millions of guilders, in the sixteenth to 1600, In the seventeenth to 3200, and ' eighteenth to 4750 millions.
Ferdinand I. and F closely allied by politics.'
1495 Perpetual public peace in Germany at the diet of Worms— establishment of the imperial cham-berand aulic council as high courts of justice.
1501 Severe state-inquisition at Venice.
1514 The Tripartit of Werbocz : an assemblage of the customs and common law of Hungary, which, with the Corpus Juris Hungarici, containing the written laws, is still in force.
1532 Charles V.’s penal ordinance— introduction of the inquisition.
’1534 Tyrannical laws against treason ofHenryVIII. —1539 The king’s proclamations in England have the force of laws.
1578 Institution of three supreme tribunals in Polaud for the trial of causes affecting the nobles—judges chosen every fifteen months by the nobles them-
.Charaber abolished.
1558-1721 Struggle of the northern I powers, Russia, Poland, Sweden, and *6^9 New code of Denmark, for the possession of the j ^aws ^or Russia, Baltic provinces, Livonia, Esthonia, etc. j un<^er Alexei.
Poland predominates and maintains Livonia, ____________________
1559 Decisive dominion of Spain in Italy from the peace of Chateau-Cambresis till the Mantuan war of succession 1631.
Gloomy policy of Philip II., who, from his court at Madrid, rnles over half the world—1580 Conqnest of Portugal and its great colonies in the East Indies and Brazil—project upon England and Scotland with the Spanish Armada—1595 Project for the partition of France,by the help of the Holy League.
1579 First blow at the predominance of the Spanish House of Hapsburg—Revolt of the Netherlands.
Establishment of the republic of Holland at a naval power. It seizes the Spanish-Portugnesc colonies In tbe East.
1584 First English colonies in North America—1604 first French.
1595 Power of the Dutch in the East Indies—at the expense of Spain and Portugal—they get the Spice Islands.
1600 War of succession betw. Poland Sf Sweden in Livonia.
1624 Resident ambassadors and complete formation of a cabinet policy from the time of Richelieu.
Increasing influence of ministers and diplomatists.
1628-1728 Holland mistress of the sea.
1631 Further depression of Spanish power in Italy—
Mantuan war of succession, and peace of Chierasco: end of Spanish dictatorship in Italy—French influence established by Richelieu. 1648 Further depression of the German house of Hapsburg
by THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR.
German protestants, France, and Sweden against Austria. The peace of Westphalia becomes the foundation of practical politics. 36c.
Tuird Period—Permanent and arbitrary taxation from the fifteenth century—rise of national debts.
1445 The Taille perpetual in France under Charles VII.
The first permanent tax—levied to expel the English: it amounted at first to 1,800,000 livres. Aides also permanent nnder this monarch.
1463 First regular tax in Venice.
About 1464 Taxes In Hungary under Matt. Continue: the nobility and clergy free, only the poor and wretched people that pay; thit system continued till lately.
1480 Improvement of the stAte ii. come in Spain and Portugal by the resumption of crown lands.
1 to bring over 80, and Portugal >ns of gold livres annually—It has
1536 The kings of England, Denmark, and the protestant princes of Germany greatly improve their exchequers by confiscations of church property.
About 1540 Commencement of regular taxation in the papal states by Paul III.
1546 Establishment of Farmers general (of the taxes) in France:
first for the salt tax, next for the tobacco monopoly, etc.—At the French Revolution there were forty-four of these leeches quartered upon the state, and drawing from it 186 millions of francs yearly—immense increase of financial places from the time they began to be sold: Neckar reckoned them at 250,000.
1555	Perpetual tax in Germany for the maintenance of the imperial army.
1556	From the time of Charles V., and his expensive wars, dates the great national debt of Spain.—The French national debt took its rise about the same time.
1569 Alba levies the tenth penny in the Netherlands—the immediate cause of their revolt from Spain.
1578 Permanent excise in Holland, to pay the expenses of the Spanish war.
The system of permanent indirect taxes comes into general use:
These taxes, laid chiefly upon food, clothing, and other consumable commodities, from this time forth furnish tbe most considerable means to governments. Seemingly fair In its operation, by taxing all alike, this system presses most heavily on the masses by raising the prices of the necessaries of life. Thc cheapest commodities are taxed higher In proportion than the expensive and lux-nrious, so that it will be found almost universally to hold, that the poor are taxed much more heavily than the rich.
1598 Philip II., whose income, npon his entering upon the government, was equal to that of all the other European princes put together, died destitnte, and deperJ~‘
npon the clergy. Notwithstanding _
great revenue he drew from bis American
colonies, he left a debt of ' ...
ducats.
1599 Sully reforms the financial system of France.
1601 First Poor-Laws in England .
Several regulations had been earlier made for tbe collecting of charitable donations for the poor. Upon the introduction of Christianity Into England, one-fonrth of the tithe was allotted to them—tbe king
and nobles having shared among themselves the church property, out of which had been mostly maintained, now by this
1604 Tax-Paulette in France, (from its inventor, Paulet.)—
a sixtieth of the Income for tbe inheritance of state offices—sixty years from this time there were 50,000 saleable finance and Judicial offices in France.
1624 Stamps and stamp taxes began ' Holland.
1642 Charles I. seeks to establish arbitrary taxation in England—one chief cause of the Revolution.
1643 The excise introduced into England.
59
A. c. 1450 to 1650. MODERN CIVILISATION, SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE.
	War and Marine.	Agriculture, Peasantry, etc. \bout 1470 Introduction of Spanish sheep into England under Edward IV. 1471 Discovery of rich silver mines in Saxony. About 1500 Sheep-breeding flourishes in Spain under cardinal Ximenes. Decline of agriculture in Italy through the depopulation caused by the French and Spanish wars. 1514 Great insurrection of the peasantry in Hungary— followed by still greater oppression. Much land goes out of tillage in England: Law of Henry VIII. against turning arable land into pasture—no flock of sheep to consist of more than 2000—hitherto some farmers had kept as many as 24,000. 1524 Great war of the peasantry in Germany, caused by the oppressions of the nobility and the exactions of the feudal system. Hops and garden fruit-trees brought into England. 1532 Spanish gold mines of Zacotecas in Mexico—of Potosi in Peru, 1545. About 1540 Salads, carrots, and turnips, first cultivated in England: such of these vegetables as bsd hitherto been used were brought fmm Holland or Flanders. Qneen Catharine, when she wanted a salad, was obliged to send a messenger thither for one. 1549 Great distresses of the common people in England: the enclosing of lands and oppressions of the gentry cause complaints and rebellion. 1556 The Russian peasantry are attached to the soil, and declared the property of the nobles. 1586 Potatoes brought to Europe by Sir F. Drake. Agriculture encouraged in England by queen Elizabeth. attended to—the English race-horse much improved upon the accession of the Stuarts. 1589 At this time not above one third of the land in France in cultivation—population fifteen millions— agriculture encouraged by Henry IV. and the great Sully. English population said to decrease from the number of enclosures and the decay of tillage — it probably arose from the prohibition of exporting corn. 1604 Exportation of English wool prohibited: Hitherto the Hanse towns had drawn immense Quantities of raw wool from England, much as England does now from Germany. 1610 Decline of agriculture in Spain upon the expulsion of the Moors: Its native mines are left nnworked after the shipment of American gold, and the land becomes depopulated. 1648 Decline of German agriculture—a consequence of the Thirty Years’ War. About 1650 Great and hurtful change in the condition of landed population in most of the countries of Europe. The nobility, leaving their country dwellings, seek for favours and distinction In the splendour of courts, and resort to the capitals: hence farmers and bailiffs take the place (>f proprietors.	Trade and Manufactures. | Political Science.		Civilisation in General. |
	'ourth Period: Rise of standing armies in the fifteenth century. 1445 First standing armies in Frunce—raised to expel the English. nitltatlon of the ordnance companies, a body of 9000 hone. To these were added, 1448, the French archers, a corps of 1C,099 infantry. Introduction qf military uniforms. 1458 Standing army in Hungary under Matt. Cor-vinus: corps of hussars, and the celebrated black guards, 1464, which he is obliged to disband, 1492. 1477 Swiss first taken into the service of the kings of France. Hie Swiss lnfantiy became the best in Christendom, as was proved in the Italian wars: they gave the tint example of their power in 1315, at the batUe of Morgaiten, against Charles of Burgundy [p. 18 h]. 1490 The German Lanzknechte (lancers) divided into regiments by the emperor Maximilian and his general, Georg Von Frtmdsberg (d. 1528). The name of LonribecA/e, during the sixteenth century, caused dread and fear from the banks of the Garonne to the Tiber. 1490 No war in Hungary without the consent of the states. 1514 No war without the consent of the states in Wiirtemberg—soon adopted throughout the German empire. 1514-17 Glorious expedition of the sultan Selim against Persia and the Egyptian Mamelukes: his army of 40,000 Janizaries gained the three great victories of Tanris, Aleppo, and Cairo, subjecting Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and part of Arabia, to the Ottoman sceptre. 1516 Burgher-militia in Castille: Card. Ximenes forms a corps of 80,000 men in order to keep the nobility in check. 1519	Charles V. swears, on being elected to the empire, to begin no war without the consent of the states [p. 28 b]. 1520	Rise of the great Turkish navy under Selim I. under his successor Solimaa the Turkish fleet became very formidable. 1521	The celebrated Spanish infantry, formed by the great generals Ferdinand and Charles V., Gonsalvo de Cordova, Pescara, Alva, etc. Muskets brought into use in the army of Charles V. by duke Alva: the great victory of Pavla, 1525, was chiefly gained by the well-directed fire of the Spanish musketeers. Michiavilli, arte della guerra: he brings together the whole experience of antiquity. 1522	Bombs first made use of at the siege of Rhodes. 1527 Sack of Reme .by the Spanish-German troops under BourboD. Albert Ddrrr, Instructions for fortifying eiiies—the first work upon military architecture. 1537 TartagliVs Neva Scienzia—the first application of mathematics to the science of defence: he discovered the curved path of cannon balls. 1543 First standing army in Sweden—1800 German troops under Gustavus Vasa. About 1550 Formation of the Russian Strelitz corps of 40,000 men, under Czar Ivan, the Dreadful. 1563 Institution of the French guards by Charles IX. 1571 The united fleet of Spain, Venice, and the Pope, under the command of Don John of Austria, obtains the victory of Lepanto over the Turks. It consisted of 280 galleys and 8 galeasses, bearing a heavy weight of cannon, by which It mainly secured the victory, and 26,000 soldiers. The Turkish fleet consisted of 300 large galleys. 1580 Philip II. of Spain maintains an army of 280,000 men. 1S8S Beatruotlou of the Spanish Armada [see p. 30 c.] Also of the Bngllah naval power under Bllxaheth. 1595 Formation of the Dutch navy during the struggle for independence against Spain. The stadtholder, Maurice, forms a new system of military tactics, which gives him great advantage in the Spanish war: close and deep order of battle—ten or more ranks in close and deep order behind each other. He was regarded as the greatest general of infantry since the Ume of the Romans.—Spinola, (d. 1630,) was his opponent, and the last great general of Spain. Rise of light cavalry: lancers' fall into disnse—formation of dragoons and carabineers, who are taught the Oral evolutions by dnke Alva and Manrice. Rise of fortifications, in the wars of the Netherlands. 1601 Improvement of the French artillery by Sully. 1601-4 Great siege of Ostend by the Spaniards under Spinola: it held out three years and a half. 1610 Henry IV. of France maintains at the time of his death a standing army of 40,000 men. 1615 First standing army in Denmark—5000 men. 1627 Formation ofaFrench navy by card. Richelieu: in 1810 the French fleet consisted of 88 large ships, and 18 galleys. 1630 Swedish army of Gustavus Adolphus: this great general effected a great change in the art of war, by making fire-arms the principal weapon instead of the pike and sword. From this time the extended line of battle, six men deep, with the wings covered by cavalry, displaced the old dense columns: he also made great use of light cavalry. He gained the victories of Leipzig and Lutzen by the well, kept-up lire of his light moveable regiment of musketeers, who, when attacked by cavalry, retreated behind the pike-rtien, and by the charges of bis squadrons, which he placed among his infantry. Gustavus Adolphus was the first who kept op a permanent general staff—generals Torstcnsohn, Horn, Banner, Wrangel, and dnke Bernhard of Weimar, belonged to bis school. 1632 Wallenstein generalissimo of the imperial troops : in a few weeks assembles an army of 150,000 men nnder his standard—the counlsTilly and Pappenhelm, Isolanl, etc. 1643 Defeat of the celebrated Spanish infantry near Rocroi by Condc—he and Turenne become the greatest generals of the age. 1648 The princes of the German empire obtain the right of making war and peace in the treaty of Westphalia.		Continued from p. 24. The discovery of America, 1492, and the new route to India, 1498, entirely alters the state and course of trade. Hie trade with the new world a monopoly in the hands of the rniers. 1497	The Emperor Maximilian confirms the three imperial fairs at Leipsic, which becomes the seat of trade for the north of Germany. 1498	Portuguese under Vasco de Gama in the East Indies—see p- 26 a. Goa the seat of the viceroy—the trade a royal monopoly. Idabon tlie treat seat of European oommercei the flourishing period of Portuguese commerce lasts till the end of the sixteenth century, when it goes to Holland. Decline of the Arabian trade to India. 1501 Portugal acquires Brazil. 1503 First transportation of negroes to America. The Fugger and Welserfamilies in Augsburg: descended from a weaver near Augsburg—the Fnggers became the Medici of Germany, and the richest merchants and princes of the time. They lent large sums to the Emperors—Charles V., when viewing the royal treasury at Paris, said,1 There is a linen-weaver at Augsburg who could pay as much as that with his own gold.’ 1515	The celebrated tapestry after Raphael’s Cartoons wove in the Netherlands. 1516	Flourishing period of Spanish silk and stuff manufacture: the Spanish Moors one of the most industrious class of weavers—16,000 silk and woollen looms in Seville alone. 1523 Spain acquires Mexico and Peru. 1530 Jurgens, a German, invents the spinning-wheel for spinning flax. 1536 Foundation of the celebrated silk manufacture at Lyons. 1550 Commercial treaty between England, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Flourishing period of the Dutch linen manufacture. Flourishing period of the Polish trading city Dantzic—at this time one of the richest cities of Europe. 1553 The English drive a considerable trade in Archangel—and with Persia across the Caspian sea. Rise of great trading companies in England. Decline of the Russian trade with the Ilanse towns. 1560 Cosmo de Medici becomes the richest prince in Europe by trade and commerce. Lace-making in Saxony. 1567 English manufactures much improved by the protection Eliz. affords to the Dutch refugees. 1569 The Royal Exchange built in London by Sir Thomas Gresham, the Royal Merchant. Oreat increase of English commerce and maritime power, 1584	Virginia and other English colonies in North America (see p. 33 f)—carried on by companies—First East India Company, 1600. The English obtain from Russia the exclusive right of trading on the Wolga, and over the Caspian sea with Persia. 1585	Decline of Antwerp—rise of Hamburg. 1589 William Lee, of Cambridge, invents the stocking-weaving frame. 1592 Leipsic Easter Catalogue: Leipsic becomes the chief scat of the book trade for Germany and the north of Europe—hitherto Frankfort on the Maine—10 foreign booksellers attended the Leipsic fair as early aa 1607. 1595 Dutch colonies in the East: Java, etc.— [see p. 32 a, and 36 a.] The colonial trade carried on by companies.—Holland gains wealth and power by the conquest of the Portuguese colonies: Amsterdam the seat of general trade. 1600 Whale-fishing of the English in the North seas—Greenland, Spitzbergen, etc. 1604 French colonies: Arcadia in Newfoundland the first. First canal in France, Briare, between the Seine and the Loire, by Sully. Henry IV. promotes arts and manufactures, especially the silk-trade. Sully was opposed to the establishment of manufactures in France, as likely to draw people from agricultural pursuits and the country to live in towns, winch he believed would weaken and ruin the land. 1609	Bank at Amsterdam—at Hamburg, 1619. Flourishing period of the Dutch carrying, ship-building, and spice companies. 1610	Exportation of English wool finally prohibited—see preceding column, 1604. Decline of Spanish manufactures upon the expulsion of the Moors. 1618 First Danish colony: Tranquebar, in the East Indies. Rise of Swedish and Danish trade upon the abolition of the Hanseatic-league monopoly. 1622 The English obtain the silk-trade with Persia upon the expulsion of the Portuguese from Ormuz—First silk-manufactory in England, 1625. East India cotton trade in England, 1631. 1630 Fall of the Hanseatic League—see p. 17 a. The company lost its privileges in Russia, 1478— Swedeu, 1536—Norway, 1560—England, 1507. 1636 Flourishing period of the flower trade in the Dutch cities, especially Haarlem. Tulip roots, brought by Busbecq, the Austrian ambassador, from Constantinople, became objects of the greatest extravagance : 20,000 francs were once given for a single root —hyacinths became afterwards a favourite article. About 1640 First manufactories in Sweden—by Germans and Belgians.	First Pf.r iod—the Middle Ages to Machiavel. The struggle between spiritual and temporal authority. ‘ Second Period—Machiavel and the Reformation. Nicolas Machiavelli, 1469-1527. Secretary of state at Florence, and ambassador at several courts. He published Discourses upon Livy, a system of politics drawn from the study of ancient history; and the Prince, a system founded on what be had seen and learned in modern Enrope. In these works are displayed and recommended, with much talent, that wretched system of policy called the Machiavellian, the leading feature of which Is, that the end sanctijfes the means, and that princes may trample under foot religion, honour, and justice, whenever they stand in the way of their interest. Sir T. Elyot's boke of the Governor, 1531. Sir Thomas More’s, 1480 -1535, Utopia. Vast influence of the Reformation upon political opinions—greatly extended by the aid of the press and pamphlets. Lutheranism led men to think of their political relations, but did not oppose or propose any form of civil government—Calvinism nndisgulsedly tended to republicanism, as it sought to promote practical equality. v The religious disputes of France turn men's minds upon politics, and produce Jean Bodin’s (1530-96,) great work, De la Republique, in which he gives the first complete essay towards a scientific treatise on politics—he strikes out a middle path between monarchy and democracy, with a strong leaning towards republicanism. Hubert Lanocet’s (1418-81) V indicia contra Tyrannos, published under the name of Junius Brutus. George Buchanan’s (the great historian) De Jure Regni apud Scotos, in favour of national liberty. Justus Lipsius, 1547-1606, VI■ libri politicorum, against Machiavel. Juan Mariana,1537-1623 (one of the best of Jesuits) wrote De Rege et Regie Institutions: burned at Paris as a revolutionary work, as it admitted that a tyrant might be destroyed. Third Period—;from Grotius to Rousseau, politics of the English Revolution. Hugo Grotius, 1583-1645 at once a theologian, Jnrist, philosopher, classic, poet, historian, statesman, and diplomatist, laid the foundation of national law by his book De Jure Belli et Pads, 1825. Thomas Hobbes, 1588-1679, his Leviathan, in which, tracing society from a state of nature, where he places all men in a condition of perpetual war, he makes their desire for peace lead them to form a social contract, which, having once entered Into, they are bound for ever to observe. Absolute power on the part of government, and Implicit obedience on the part of the governed, he held as necessary to the well-being of a state—and the best of all forms of govern-meat is therefore the monarchical. Sai.masius [Claude Sau-mise], 1588-1653, De-fensio Regia pro Carolo I. —answered by John Mii.ton, 1608-74, in his celebrated first and second Defensio pro po-pulo Anglicano. Swarms of political tracts during the English civil wars.	From p. 22 b, and p. 24. Augustine period'of Arts and Science in Italy. Painters: Raphael, Correggio, Mich. Angelo, Titian, the Caracci—Poets: Ariosto,Tasso, Guarino—A rchitects: Bramantc, Palladio, Vignola—A r fist : Benvenuto Cellini—Musicians: Palestrina, etc. Discovery qf the Laocoon—study qf the antique—rise qf the Opera. Great Statesmen and Historians: Ma-chiavelii, Guiccardini, Pauli Sarpi— Philosophers: Cardanos,. Patricius, Telesius, Campanelia. Learning flourishes in England: Erasmus says, England, at this time, was next to Italy, and snperior to France or Germany : Grocyn, the patriarch of English learning, died 1510— Linacre, translator of Galen,1521—Lilly—Smith —Cheke, etc. English printers: successors of Caxton : Wynkln de Worde, Rich. Pynson, Peter 1 reverie, etc.—In Scotland, Waller Chapman, about 1508, and his partner, And. Miller, were the first printers.— 26 books printed In Londou between 1500 and 1510. English writers: Latimer, Fisher, Thomas More, d. 1535-Sir Thomas Elyot, d. 1546—W. Cavendish, d. 1557—Leland, (John), d. 1552, English Antiquities—John Bale,d. 1503, Lives qf British Writers—John Knox, the Reformer, d. 1572. St. Paul’s school foonded by Colet— Erasmus teaches Greek at Cambridge, 1510. 1514 Richard Croke, an Englishman, teaches Greek at Leipsic. 1517 First Greek lecture at Oxford by Fox—Greek professorship founded, 1519. 1517 The Reformation gives a new impulse to learning: it calls out the genius of Renchlin, Erasmus, Sir Tbouias More, d. 1535, Ulrich, V. Hutton, etc.—Luther, hy his translation of the Bible, becomes the father of German prose—Melauchlhon (1402-1560) improves the Protestant schools. Flourishing period of German painters: Albert Durer, Lucas Kransch, Holbein. 1524 Political pamphlets have a great influence in promoting the Reformation. 1530 etc. Advance of natural science by Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, lord Bacon. Advance of science and literature in France under Francis I., called “ the father of letters.” The royal college founded—the great philologist, Scaliger, d. 1558—the learned printers, Robert (d. 1530) and Henry Stephens, 1528 08-Rsbelais, M.rot, Comines, Montaigne, Charron, etc. Literature, Science, Navigation, and Trade flourish in England under Elizabeth, 1558-1604. Roger Aseham, preceptor to the qnccn, 1515-88—Sir P. Sidney—Marlon e-Shakspeare—Ben Johnson—Massinger —Haleigh—Sir Francis Drake—Hol-liugshed—Buchanan. TTnlvertltlea founded i Eton college, 1440—Wittenburg, the chief seat of Protestant theology, 1502— Frankfort on the Oder, 1500-Stras-burg, 1538—Geneva, by Calvin,d. 1501, and Beza, d. 1605—Konigsberg, 1544— Mexico, 1551— Jena, 1558—Milan, 1565 —	Leyden, 1575 — Hclmstadt, 1576— Edinburgh, 1581—Dublin, 1591—Giesen, 1607—Groningen, 1614—Utrecht, 1636 —Kiel, 1665. British Schools: St. Paul’s, 1500— Shrewsbury school, 1551—Christ’s Hospital, 1553—Westminster college, 1560 —	Merchant Taylor’s, 1561 —Rugby, 1507—Harrow, 1571—Charter House, 1611. Brilliant period of Spanish literature and art, from the end of the sixteenth to the end of the seventeenth centuries. Lope de Vega, Cervantes, Calderon, the Escnrial—the great hlstorlaus, Mariana, Herrera, de Solis. The Portuguese Camocns. 1582 Academia della Crusca at Florence, for the Italian language. The Gregorian calendar. 1588 The first English newspaper, The English Mercury, by Lord Burleigh. Flourishing period of Dutch literature and science, during the great political power and prosperity of Holland. Rubens, Rembrandt, Vandyke— Holland becomes the principal seat qf classical literature and philology: Heinsiiis, Vossius, Gronovins, Grotius, the Elzevirs—Leyden and Utrecht the chief universities.—The Dntch gardens. New impulse to political science and general literature, by the struggle between the Stuans and the parliament. The Puritan theological writers and commentators In England and Scotland. Progress in France under Henry IV.—Cardinal Richelieu. 1631 First regular French Journal, the Gazette de France—1635 Foundation of the French Academy.
b
c
d
60 Continuation of Table xx.	SYNCHRONISTICAL . TABLES OF	A. C. 1450 to 1650.
Luxuries, Manners, etc. | Philosophy. | Physics. j History, etc.				Architecture. | Music.		
Decline of Chivalry. 1515 At the court of France eigh in the morning was the hour fo dinner; and about six people wen to bed—the beautiful Englis princess, Marv, is said to hav changed this custom. Magnificent and brilliant court o Henry VIII. Luxury prevails in the court Francis I.: great influence courtezans—rise of court intri gues. Splendid tournament in the fielc of the cloth of gold, at the meet ing of Henry VIII. and Francis I 1519 Ferd. Magelhaens, a Portu guese, makes the first voyage round the world. Chocolate brought into Spain — increased use of foreign spices general in Europe. Looking-glasses and carpets firel come into use in England. 1532 Protestant clergy adopt black clothing. 1535 Tobacco smoking first becomes known in Europe. 1538 The diving bell invented. 1553 Sealing-wax comes into use in Europe. About 1558 the first masked ball at the French court—in England under Henry VIII. 1559 Tournaments done away with in France upon the unfortunate death of Henry II. pierced by a lance— banquets come in instead. The English nobility still keep up the ancient magnificence in their hospitality and the number of retainers : Queen Elizabeth's visit to Leicester at Kenilworth Castle—365 hogsheads oi beer drank at it—the earl of Derby kept 240 servants. At this time only two carriages in Paris— One for the queen, Catherine, and one for the king's natural daughter— horses and litters were commonly used—a hundred years later there were above 300, and two hundred years later above 20,000 equipages in Paris. The profligacy of the French court increases to a dreadful pitch under Catherine de Medici and her three sons—Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry III. Catherine keeps crowds of beautiful women, wives and maidens, at her court in order to ensnare men to her 1 purpose—Nightly orgies of Hen. III. Bull fights and Autos de Fd in Spain. The etiquette of the Spanish court was so strict under Philip II. that the queen could only see the princes and i princesses at particular times. 1560 Snuff firet brought into France from Portugal by Nicot—' herba Ni-! cotiana.’ 1 Knives first made in England— Forks not yet at all in use here. ■ 1576 Judicial astrology much in vogue ! during the sixteenth and to the midst 1 of the seventeenth century. Card. Richelieu consulted astrologers— Nos-trodamns—Scni^Wallenstein’sastrologcr)— William Lilly, i002-8l, and Aubrey during the civil wars in England. ,, Pocket watches first in use in < England. 1577-80 Sir Francis Drake makes the second voyage round the world. 1577 Stroganoff, a Russian, discovers Siberia. 1589 Gallantries of the court of Henry IV. of France. The fair Gabrielle—marchioness of Verneuil —Henry had sixty mistresses—Sullv was scandalised at the dissipation of the court. 1590 Telescopes in use in the t Netherlands. 1595 House of correction at Amsterdam. 1598 Firet regular theatre in London, the Globe, in which Shakspeare performed, opened—in Paris about the same time. Great magnificence displayed in the , Turkish, Persian, and Mogul courts: * court of Soliman the Magnificent at Stamboul—of Shah Abbas at Ispahan, and of Akbar at Delhi. 1603 Horse-racing comes into practice * in England—great attention paid to the breed of racers. 1615 Coffee at Venice—in Paris 1672 '• —Leipsic 1694—firet coffee-house in London 1636—at Marseilles 1650— 1 in Oxford 1650. 1620 Perukes firet wom at the French court. Thermometers invented by Drebel, i a German—Barometers by Torn- , celli, of Florence. , 1623 The court of Rome, under < Urban VIII., the most luxurious and i splendid of Europe — extravagant ] magnificence of foreign cardinals and P ambassadors, whom the Roman nobles * endeavour to surpass. i	Continued from p. 24, a. t The sixteenth century is the golds period of philosophic study Italy. , The ancient systems are renewe by neo-Platonists, and the ca balistic, magical, and rcligiou philosophers—the scholastic phi losophy of the middle ages goe f quite out of vogue. f Cabalistic and magical system: John Reuchlin, 1455-1522, de Art r Cabalistica, a restorer of philosophy and classical literature—F. Geo. Zorz —H. Com. Agrippa, 1486-1535, Occulta Philosophia: a system of ex travagant chimeras, in which he re presents magic, the key of all th secrets of nature, under the thre< forms of natural, celestial, and reli gious. His work on the vanity ant uncertainty of science had great re pute—John IFier,.1515-1588, his fol lower, like Agrippa, opposed belief in witchcraft. The modem Theosophists: at the head of whom stood Theophrastus Paracelsus, 1493-1541. He blended chemistry and therapeu tics with the neo-Platonic and car balistic mysticism, with much extras vagance; as did also Valentine Weigel 1532-1588, his follower—Jerome Car dan, 1501-76, a celebrated physician naturalist, and mathematician, resem bled Paracelsus in his vagaries, but was much his superior in information Revival of Aristotle's system and its opposers. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Aristotelians divided into two sects: the Averroists, who held to the commentary oi Averroes, and the Alexandrists, or followers of Alexand. Aphro-disiensis. Peripatetics: P. Pomponatius, of Mantua, d. 1530—Paul Jovius, 1483— 1553—Jul. Ctes. Scaliger, 1484-1559, the celebrated philologist—And. Caes-alpinus, 1509-1603, the most famous Aristotelian of his period—Melanc-thon, d. 1560—and others. Its opposers were—F. Patrizzi, Bruno, j Berigard, Magnenus, Telesius, Cam-| pattella, and chiefly Peter Ramus, d. 1572, one of its ablest opponents—a distinguished mathematician, and father of modem logic. Revival of Stoicism: by Just. Lipsius, 1547-1606. Attempts to found new systems and particular combinations of various doctrines. Nic. Taurellus, 1547-1606, endeavours to separate philosophy from theology, and regards reason as the proper source of philosophical knowledge. Bern. Telesius, 1508-88, a Neapolitan, and founder of an academy at Cosenza, to oppose the Aristotelians. Franc. Patrizzi, 1529-1593, author of a new theory of emanation. Geord. Bruno, burnt at Rome for heresy, 1600—his system was an extension of that of the EleaUe and Plotinus—a species of pantheism. Sceptical writers: Of these Michel de Montaigne, 1533-1592, author of the celebrated essays, was the firet of modem times—he affirmed that all experience led him to believe in the uncertainty of all human knowledge, and in the feeble- 1 ness of all human reason. He was followed by Etiertne Boctie, d. 1563, and Pierre Charron, 1541-1603, author of a Trade sur la Sagesse. Modern Philosophy. \ free and progressive spirit of inquiry into the principles, the laws, and limits of human knowledge ; with attempts to systemar * rise and combine them. First Period—from Bacon to Kant. fresh and independent attempts of reason, with a more profound and systematic spirit of investigation. . Attempts to ground philosophi- j cal knowledge on experiment. ^ Francis Baoon lord Vernlam, 1 1501-1020. lie most celebrated philosopher of modem times; and who, by substituting nature and experiment for the vain speculations of the schoolmen, and the method of induction for the old system of Aristotle, entirely changes the course of inquiry, and exercises the most important and be- * neficial influence upon succeeding philosophers. rincipal works: Be dignitate et Aug-Tientis Scientiarum—Novum Orga- h turn Scientiarum. <	.The study of Magic, Alclicin) and Astrology prevails durio ^ the dark ages. 11 Improvement in medica science by Ant. Benivieni, of Florence tL 1502, Alessand. Bene detli, of Padua, d. 1525 struggle against the Arabia: system; while Nicolau Leonicenus, d. 1524, re vives that of Hippocrates Com. Agrippa and Para celsus, (see col. a) physici ans, and chemists, also ait thisscience by their writing Great change in natural philosophy from tht lime of Copernicus. Astrology and magic art driven out by astronomy mathematics, and mechanics, as is alchemy by chemistry, and demonology by natural history. Now about begins the period of great discoveries in physics, and of deep calculations: mathematics give life, vigour, and certainty to the study oj natural philosophy, Wloholas Copernicus, 1473-1543, the creator of modem astronomy. Bom at Thom—discovers, one hundred years before the use of telescopes, the true system of the universe. His great work, de Orbium Ccelestium Revolutionibus, was only printed a short time before his death. His system was condemned by a pope's bull 1616, which was not revoked till 1821. The study of Botany and Zoology begins torevive. 1533 Botanic gardens at Padua 1577, Leyden, &c. Natural historians: Conrad Gesner, 1516-65, of Zurich, the German Pliny —Ulysses Aldrovandus, of Bologna, 1522-1605, zoology—A ndreas Ctesalpinus, d. 1603, botanist—the first who ranged plants in classes and orders—Geo. Agricola, d. 1555, mineralogy—Bart. Eustachi, d. 1574, Anatomy —Gab. Fallopio, d. 1563, Comparative Anatomy — Hieron. Cardano, d. 1575, Mathematics—And. Vesa-lius, of Brussels, d. 1564, his celebrated work on anatomy, with plates from nature by Titian — Nic. Tartaglia, d. 1557, founder of the science of gunnery— Gian. B. de la Porta, d. 1615, Natural Magic— Camera Obscura — and De Humana Physiognomia, whereby he became the father of physiognomy. Tyobo Brabe, 1546-1601, a Dane, and celebrated astronomer—he adhered to the Ptolemaic system, which he greatly improved. Telescopes invented about ( this time—improved by Oalileo de Galilei, 1504-1042- :he father of modem physics j —founder of statics-discoverer of the laws of felling bodies—pendulum, &c. William Gilbert, cele- * brated English physician, d. 1603—discovers electricity. John Kepler, 1571-1630, he greatest astronomer of J the sixteenth century. He discovers the Kepleran laws of the elliptical course J. of the planets, &c.—the foundation of the Newtonian system of gravity— by his Dioptrica he founds the science of optics. ( hhn Napier invents logarithms, 1614. j iVill. Snell, d. 1626, Dutchman, refraction of rays of l light. William Harwey, • d. 1057, J founder of modem physiology by his discoveiy of ^ the circulation of the blood. Evangel. Torricelli, d. 1647, inventor of the barometer— discoveries respecting air, J light, and space. Telmont, d. 1644—chemi- ; cal discoveries. S	English Historians. g The Chronicles of Englode with the fruit of Timis, Si t Albans, 1483 — Caxton’ Chronicle — The Chronicle of England, with the Dcde -	of Popes and Emperors, an< , also the description of Eng s land — Wynkin de Words s 1528 — another by Pynson -	1516 — another by Byddel i 1539 —another by Thoma -	Petyt, 1543 — and severe -	others. 1 Chronicles by Ralph Holin i. shed, d. 1581 — Froissart translated by Bemere—Fa l byan, d. 1512 — Grafton — > Hall, d. 1547 — Hardyng's &c. collected and republishec , in Land. 1807, &c. ' John Stowe, 1525-1605, Sum-\ marie of English Chronicles. Arthur Kellon's Chron. 1547. , John Leland, d. 1552, English antiquarian. John Bale, 1495-1563, Live* 1 of British Writers. ' Geo. Buchanan, 1506-82, ' History of Scotland. 1587 John Fox, Book of Mar-tyre. N. Fitzherbert, <L 1617, Biography. Sir T. North, translation ol Plutarch. I. Pits, 1560-1616, Biog. of Kings, Bishops, &c. — Rich. Knolles,d. 1610,Turkish Hist. William Camden, 1551-1603, history and antiquities. Henry Spelman, 1562-1641. Walter Raleigh, 1552-1617, History of the World, and other works. John Speed, 1555-1629, Hist, of Britain to James I. Sam. Daniel, d. 1619, Hist, of England — John Hayward, d. 1627, the same. H. B. Cotton, 1570-1631, Antiquities. Lord Herbert, 1581-1648, Life of Hen. Wl.—Rich. Baker, d. 1645, Chronicles. Thomas Fuller, 1608-1661, Church History, Worthies of Devon, &c. Voyages and Travels. Francis Drake, 1545-96, the firet Englishman, and the second commander, who sails round the world. John Hawkins, 1520-95, voyage to Guinea. John Davis, d. 1609, three voyages for the discovery of a north-west passage. Richard Hakluyt, 1553-1616, Collection of Voyages by Englishmen. Samuel Purchas, 1577-1628, his Pilgrimages. Italian Historians : Machiavelli, d. 1527, the firet of modem classical historians—Storie Florentine. Fran. Guicciardini, of Florence, d. 1540, Storia d'Italia. Pietro Bembo, Venetian, d. 1547, History of Venice. Paul Jovius, d. 1552, Hist, sui Temp. Geo. Vasari, the painter, d. 1574, Lives of Painters, &c. Carl. Sigonio, d. 1585. Paol. Paruta, d. 1598. CiESAR Baronius, d. 1607, Annales Eccles. Paol. Sarpi, d. 1622, History of the Council of Trent. Davila, d. 1631— Bentivog- 1 Lio,d. 1644—Strada, d. 1619. i Spanish Historians : Sepulveda, d. 1572 — Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, d. 1575 —Ocampo, d. 1578—Gomez, d. 1580—Zurita, d. 1580— Morales, d. 1590—Ant. Perez, d. 1614—Sandoval, d. 1621. ruAN Mariana, d. 1623, the firet great Spanish historian— ^ the second was int. Herrera, d. 1625. roAO de Barros, d. 1570, the \ Portuguese Livy. 			 n German : larion's Chronicle, 1532 — Johan. Sleidan, d. 1556, de Statu Religionis, etc. 559-74 Historia Eccles. by the Centuriw Magdeburg. & iusbeq, d. 1592, Epistolw. French Historians : ' tostly Memoire from the time „ of Comines: s fart, and Gull. Bellay, d. 1559 and 1543—Tavannes, d. 1573 —Blaise de Montluc, d. 1577 * —Brantome, d. 1614—Mar- ® guerite de Valois, d. 1615. 1 )eThou, 1553-1617, Historia 1 sui Temporis—the firet real ’ historical work of the French, I’ ullv, d. 1641, Memoirs. 1 i	From p. 57, d. 1500-1650. Fourth Period.— Roman Ar j chitecture. 8 I. Italian Architects : 0	Ft. Bazsarl Bramante, , 1444-1S14. 1	Giul. da Sangallo, d. 1517, am Michael Angelo, revived the ele ’ gance of the Grecian, and th< ’ splendour of the Roman architec ’ ture in Italy. | St. Peter's, at Rome, the most mag nificent building of modem times 1513-1614—various palaces, &c. Other Italian Architects .— ’ Raphael, the painter — Bald Peruzzi, d. 1536—Giul. Romani —Ant. Sanoallo, d. 1546—And J Contuccio, d. 1570 — Galeazzi 1 ALESSI,d.l572— PlRBOLlGORIO.d 1580-G.B. da Vignola, 1507-73 his writings had considerable influence—Bart. Ammanati, d. 1592— And. Palladio, d. 1580—Dom, 1 Fontana, d. 1607—Al. Vittoria. d. 1608—V. Scamozzi, d. 1616— 1 Car. Maderno, d. 1629—Nigetti, d. 1649. 1 Sculptors:—Lorenzetto—Mich, Angelo — Giul. and Ant. 'da Sangallo — Bandinelli — Bene-venuto CelliNi, d. 1570, &c. Discovery of Antiques:—The , Apollo at Antium—the Laocoon in the baths of Titus. , 11. English Buildings under the 'Tudors and Stuarts:— Richmond palace — Henry VIIIs chapel in West, abbey, 1502— Abbey church, Bath, 150*7—King’s Coll, chapel, Camb. finished 1517 —Hampton Court, by Card. Wol-sey—Colleges in Oxford and Cambridge — Old Somerset House, Strand, by John of Padua, 1549 —John Shuts publishes the firet scientific work on architecture, 1563 —Theod. Haveus, fl. 1570—John Thorpe—Robt. Adams, fl. 1590 —	Ralph Simons — Gerard Christmas. Thos. Holte, the Schools, Merton and Wadham colleges, Oxford. Mansions:—Burleigh, Line. 1580 —	Kenilworth, 1575 — Knowle, 1570—Penshuret, 1570. Xntgo Tones, 1572-1052, Introduces the Roman style, and ranks as the greatest architect of England next to Wren—Palace of Whitehall — St. Paul’s, Co vent Garden: the ancient part of Greenwich Hospital, part of Wilton House—Town Ilall of Abingdon —beautiful river-front of Somerset House, now no more, &c. ‘ Sculptors:—Mausoleum of Hen. VII. fin. 1519 by Piet. Torri-giano—Ri. Stephens, ab. 1590, earl of Suffolk's tomb at Boreham —Maxim. Powtran (or Colte) fl. 1607—Nich. Stone, 1586-1647 —Edw. Pierce, d. 1598—Hubert Soeur, (Frenchman), &c. Tbe earl of Arnndel, d. 10451 a great patron and collector of works of art — the Arundelian marbles and statues at Oxford. III.	Spanish buildings under Ferd., Charles V., Philip II., 111., IV. Cathedral at Seville, 1506-12—at Salamanca, by Hontanon, 1513 —palace Medina Celi at Seville, 1520—palace of Charles V. in the Alhambra, by Machuca, after 1527—the Escurial, 1563-86, &c. Sculptors:—Felipe de Borgona, 1516 — sepulchre of Ferd. and Isabel, at Granada, 1516—the Arfe femily celebrated for their -works in gold and silver. [V. French Architecture from Fra. I. to Louis XIV. 1 Fontainebleau, by Skrlio and Pri-maticcio—commencement of the Louvre at Paris, after the drawings of Lescot, d. 1571—Hotel de Ville * at Paris, 1533 — Philiberit de Lorme, d. 1578, began the Tuil-leries—the Luxembetg, 1615—the 1 Palais Royal, by Le Mercier, d. 1660, who also built the Sorbonne and church of St. Roch. Sculptors:—J. Goujon, d. 1572 —Pilon, d. 1590—statue of Henry j IV.	on the Pont-Neuf at Paris. /. German and Dutch Ar- ^ chitecture. rhe Exchange at Antwerp, 1531— at Amst. 1608-13—council house at Augsburg, 1614-20— Hotel de Ville at Amst. 1646, the master- ^ piece in this style, by Van Cahpen, d. 1658. ’culptors:—Pet. Vischer, d. 1530—B. Engelburger, 1508 — Alex. Colon, 1566. fl. Indian Architecture under the Great Mogul. epulchre of Akbar, near Agra— that of Shah Jchan—magnificent palace of red granite at Delhi. i 'II. Persian, under the Sofls. C plendid buildings of Shah Akbar i at I spahan—the great bazaar, which q Chardin calls the finest in the world—the great bridge, &c. ] u this period were founded the ] principal museums of antiquities i ind sculptures in Italy, &c.	Seep. 24, c. About 1450 countcrpoin -	rapidly improves—canon and foguescoine into use, b the compositions of J. Dun stable, an Englishman, d 1468—Dr. John Hambou 1 fl. 1470—Dr. Robt. Fayr fax, Sir Thos. Phelyppes-E John Taverner, oignnist o ‘ Cardinnl (viz. Christ Ch.) Oxon—John Macbeck, or ' ganist of Windsor—Joh: >	White, MS. in Christ Ch Oxon, famous in chore " music, ■ 200 composers, mosth German and French, fl ; 1450-1480—fugues ant canons in the severe style : I. Flemish School: — . WlLLiERT, 1490-1563, . founder of the Venetiai , school—Orlando Lasso , 1530-94, the greatest mas . ter of this Flemish school. >	II. Germans: — Marti? Luther, revives psalmody -	and makes congregations: singing an essential part oi the liturgy; Ludg. Senfi was his favourite composer III. Italian:—C. Porta founds the Lombard school , —Viola, Zarlino, authoi of Instituzioni Harmoniche, embodying all the systems up to this time, 1571— Philip of Neri, b. 1515, invents sacred oratorios; and Giov. Animuccia, d. 1569, firet composes them. Palestrina, 1529-94, founder of the Roman school and of modem Ital. church music, bringB choral harmony to the highest perfection—his disciples Nanini, the Gabrieli. Gesualdo, principe di Ve-nosa, d. 1615, founder of the Neapolitan school— celebrated madrigals. Cremona violins, the best by Stradivari, Amati, Guameri. About 1600 castrati in the pope’s chapel at Rome: castrationes ad honorem Dei expressly recommended by a papal bull. From the end of the Sixteenth to the middle of the Seventeenth Century: First attempt at recitative style—rise of the opera and of concerted church music —afterwards of dramatic melodies and songs, instrumental accompaniments, <£c. Italian: Bstablistament of tbe opera at Florence t Vinc. Galilei, Jeremiah’s Lament, with violin acc.— Jacopi Peri, Dafne, the firet serious opera—Orazio Vecchi, firet opera buffa, 1597. Cl. de Monteverde, 1570-1651, Venetian, discovers the harmony of the dominant, compound discords, &c., the greatest composer of his time. At Rome:—G. Caccini, 1600 — Greg. Allegri, 15^0-1640. L. Viadini, of Lodi—firet gives a melody to the bass —invents figured basses— founder of church concerts. Haoomo Carlsslml, 1528-1674, of Padua — father of dramatic melody. Jenevoli, masses for sixteen voices — Cesti, operas — Cavalli, of Venice, organist and singer, 45 operas —his Jason, 1649. English Musicians of this period: Him. Tallis, d. 1585, father of English musicians —one of the greatest composers of Europe — celebrated song in 40 parts. Vill. Bird, fl. 1575-1623, famous church music — Non Nobis Domine. V. Blithehan, oiganist of the chapel royal to queen Eliz. — Dr. John Bull, 1563-1622, music professor at Gresham college—Thos. Morley, pupil of Bird, d. 1604, his famous burial service. ’elebrated Virginal book of queen Elizabeth. irlando Gibbons, 1583-1625, madrigals and church music—he combined fine liarmony, simplicity, and grandeur.	it 8 V 1. f 1, i i 1 l [ f 1
a	b	c	d	e	f
a. c. 1460 to 1650. MODERN CIVILISATION, SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE.
61
Poetry and Works of Imagination.
Education.
English.
English Poetry under the Tudors, Sfc.
3 improvement, in English poetry for a century after Chaucer’s
Little addition, and : death.
William Dunbar, 1465-1530—Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522, Virgil—Scottish poets. Lydgate, d. about 1446, ‘ The Warres of Troy,’ ‘ Fall of Prynces,’ &c. Ac.
James I. of Scotland, 1437,—Harry the Minstrel.
Stephen Hawes, ‘ Pastime of Pleasure,* 1517—the best poem of this century.
The Nut-Brown Maid,' a beautiful ballad, anon, about 1520.
John Skelton, <L 1529, poet laureate.
Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541, and Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, beheaded 1546 : the first English poetry in blank verse—first English sonnets—their works prodace a great effect upon English literature.
Sir Philip Sidney, 1554-1586, ‘ Arcadia,’ a pastoral romance, ‘ Defence of English Poesy,’ Ac.
Thomas Tusser, 1520-80, ‘ Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry.’
Else of the Engliah Drama.
The earliest dramatic productions of England were, miracle-plays, or mysteries, founded upon scriptures, or lives of the saints. The earliest known piece acted in Europe was The Miracle of St. Catherine, performed prior to 1119 at Dunstable.
1268 Miracle plays performed at Chester (The Chester Mysteries) till 1577:
supposed to have been translated from the French by Rolf Higden—the clergy were the authors and actors of the earliest English mysteries; churches and monasteries the
John Bale, 1495-1563, his religious plays, printed 1538; he was the first who applied the words tragedy and comedy to English dramatic pieces.
Moralities (moral plays), in which the characters were allegorical representations of vices and virtues, as Truth, Justice, Peace, Ac., were firet introduced under Henry VI. and attained their highest perfection under Henry VII.—1 Nature,’ and others, by Henry Medwall, about 1480—‘ Magnificence,’ by John Skelton—and other moralities by W. Wager, Fulwell, T. Lupton, Ac. about 1500.
Moralities resembling tragedy and comedy, after 1560	‘ Tom Tiler and his
Wife ’—‘ The Conflict of Conscience,’ by N. Woodes— The Disobedient Child,’ by T. Ingelend—‘ Cambyses,’ by T. Preston—and others.
1549 All kinds of stage plays forbidden by the council of Edward VI.
Latin plays acted at the universities, Eton, and other large schools.
Nicholas Udal writes, about 1540, ‘ Ralph Roister Doister,’— the first English comedy.
John Still writes, about 1566, ‘ Gammer Gurton’s Needle.’
Thomas Sackville, earl of Dorset, 1527-1608, poet and statesman, writes, in conjunction with Thomas Norton, d. 1584, ‘ Ferrex and Porrex,’ (or ‘Gor-budoc ’), 1561—
the first regular English tragedy.
Lewis Wager's ‘ Life and Repentance of Mary Magdalen,’ 1567.
George Gascoigne, d. 1577, poet, author of the first prose comedy, and of ‘ Jocasta,’ the second tragedy, in blank verse.
John Heywood, d. 1565, author of various interludes, of which he may be considered the inventor. He also wrote ‘ The Spider and Flie,’ and other poems.
Jasper Heywood, 1535-97, plays from Seneca.
Edmond Spenaer, about 1553-96.	The Drama-
John Davis, 1570-1626, ‘ Scouige of tieatricaiperfo — -	- -	by the council.
ty are forbidden
Whetstone's ‘ Promos and Cassandra,’ 1578, on which Shakspeare founded his ‘ Measure for Measure.’
Numerous plays were written between 1568-80—R. Edwards, T. Wilmot, Thos. Hughes, and others.
Golden period of the old ntigiiph
Folly,’ Ac.
John Owen, d. 1622, Latin epigrams.
Fulke Greville, lord Brooke, 1544-1628, poetical treatises.
E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Tasso.
Michael Drayton, d. 1631, ‘ Polyolbion,’
' Nymphidia,’ Ac.
k	* >*>•
satires and miscellaneous poems.	also poems.
G. Sandys, d. 1643, ‘ Paraphrase upon the Robt. Greene, d. 1592, wrote also many Psalms,’ Ac.	prose tracts interspersed with verses.
Phineas Fletcher, d. 1650, ‘ Purple Island,’ John Lyly, the author also of * Euphues.’ ^c*	George Peele, <L	about 1596; wrote also
George Wither, 1588-1677, satirical poems, poems, Ac.	Thos. Kyd.
William Browne, 1590-1645, ‘ Britannia’s Thomas Lodge, d. 1625; wrote also poems Pastorals.’	and prose tracts.
William Habington, 1605-54, ‘ Castara.’
Francis Quarles, d. 1644, * Emblems,’ Ac.
John Harrington, 1561-1612, Ariosto.
Samuel Daniel, 1562-1619, ‘ Civil Wars,’ William Shakspeare, 1566-1616. sonnets, &c.	- George Chapman, 1634 ; celebrated also for
Sir John Davies, ‘ Immortality of the his translation of Homer, Ac.
Soul,’ Ac.	Thomas Dekker; also prose tracts, Ac.
Thomas Carew, d. 1639, love elegies, Ac. Thomas Heywood; the author also of ‘ The Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels,’ Ac.
William Drummond, d. 1649, sonnets, Ac.	_____ 6
rranols Beaumont, 1555-1615,
Giles Fletcher, d. 1623, ‘ Christ’s' Victorye,	(and)
Ac.	John Fletcher, 1576-1625.
Sir W%Hiam Davenant, 1605-68, dramatist john Martton^ d. 1614. and poet, ‘ Gondibert.’
r ^	Ben Joneonf d« 1637s
Richard Lovelace, 1618-58.	Thomas Middleton,
Alex. Brome, 1620-60, songs and poems. John Webster.
Robt. Herrick, d. ab. 1660, ‘ Hesperides,’ John F<*^ d' ab- 1651'
Philip Massinger, d. 1640.
James Shirley, 1596-1666.
1625-40 Numerous masks at court, Ac.,
Thomas Nash, d. 1601; chiefly distinguished as the author of satirical prose tracts.
1598 Foundation of the Globe theatre, Southwark, in which Shakspeare acted.
and other poems.
John Milton, 1608-76.
John Suckling, d. 1641—.Ed. Waller, 1605-1687—Abr. Cowley, 1618-67, celebrated lyrics.
Samuel Butler, 1612-80,
‘ Hudibras.’
Italian.
Poets during the Italian wars of France and Spain; and during the predominance of the latter.
Mich. Buonarotti, the great Florentine painter, d. 1564—and Piet. Bembo, d. 1547, lyrics in the style of Petrarch : splendid prose writer.
N. Machiavelli, comedies and novels. Matt. Bandello, d. 1562, 140 novels.
Jac. Sannazaro, d. 1530, ‘Arcadia,’ a pastoral romance.
Agost. Beccari, d. 1590, dramatic pastorals.
Giov. Ruccellai, d. 1526, ‘ Le Api.’
Luigi Alamanni, d. 1556, ‘Della Col-tivazione,’ Ac.
Giov. Giorg. Trissino, d. 1550, ‘Italia Liberata,’ Ac.
Eudovloo Ariosto, 1678-1533,
Orlando Furioso,’ and five comedies after Plautus and Terence.
Bernardo Tasso, d. 1569, ‘ Amadis*—he was father of
Torquato Tasso, 1566-1595,
Gierusalemme Liberata,’ ‘ Amynta,’ Ac.
Giambattista Ouarlnl, 1537-1612,
1II pastor fido,’ Ac., the last of the Augustine period of Italian poetry, which from this time begins to decline.
The burlesque poems of Barbier Burchi-ello, d. 1448—Fran. Bemi, d. 1536— and Folengo, of Mantua, d. 1544, are highly celebrated.
Crocce, d. about 1620, the popular romance ‘ Bertoldo.’
Aless. Tassoni, d. 1635, founder of the mock heroic: ‘ Secchia Rapita.’
Leppi, d. 1644.
Fran. Bracciolini, d. 1645, ‘Schemo degli Dei,* a mock heroic.
Giamb. Marino, 1569-1625, ‘Adonis,’ Ac.: bombast instead of poetry. Chiabrera, d. 1637, and Testi, 1646, two superior lyrics poets.
Filicaja, d. 1707, revives the national taste and feelings.
Poets during the Huguenot wars, Sfc., to the reign of Louis XIV.
Clement Marot, 1495-1544,
- gs, Ac.
Margaret, queen of Navarre, d. 1549, mysteries, farces, the ‘ Heptameron,’ 100 novels.
Pierre
prince
Btienne Jodelle, d. 1573,
founder of the modem French drama, upon the classic model —his ‘Cleopatra,’ Ac.
Other dramatists:—Rob. Gamier, d. 1601—La Peyrouse, author of ‘ Medea,’ the first tragedy in rhyming Alexandrines—Jean de Rotrou, d. 1650 —J. Mairet, d. 1680, the immediate forerunners of Corneille, Ac.
Francois Eabelals, 1683-1553,
satirical romance.
Franfois deMalherbe, 1555-1628, father of French lyric poetry.
Regnier, d. 1613, father of classic French satiric poetry.
Honore d' Urfe, 1567-1625, ‘ Astrde,’ a pastoral.
1592 Foundation of the Theatre Frangoise, and, 1600, of the Theatre du Marais— 1645 First Italian opera.
Spanish and Portuguese.
Flourishing period of Spanish Poetry, formed upon the Italian.
Juan Boscan, d. before 1544, father of Castilian poesy, sonnets after Petrarch. Garcilaso de la Vega, d. 1536, eclogues, Gil Vincente, d. 1557 :
said to have introduced the regular drama into Europe — founder of the Portuguese drama by his ‘Autos’—tragedies, comedies, and farces.
Saa de Miranda, d. 1558, sonnets, the first Portuguese classical poet.
Jorge de Montemayor, d. 1561, pastorals and novels.
Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, d. 1575, father of Spanish prose in his humourous novel ‘ Lazarillo de Tormes.’
Fern, de Herrera, d. after 1578, odes. Ant. Ferreira, d. 1569.
Kali de Camoens, 1526-79.
Portuguese poetry declines upon the Spanish conquest.
The brothers Leon and Bart, de Argen-sola, 1613 and 1631.
Christ, de Castillejo, <L 1596, witty erotic songs.
Luis de Gongora, d. 1627, ‘ Des Estilo Culto.’
Alonso de Ercilla, d. after 1590, ‘ La Araucana,’ epic.
Miguel de Cervantes, 1567-ieid.
' Don Quixote,’ poems, and novels.
XtOpe de Vega, 1562-1035,
author of eight hundred dramatic pieces—his works, among which are some excellent novels, fill 133,225 pages: more than any other standard writer.
numerous dramatic pieces of all descriptions.
Ant. de Solis, the historian and dramatist, 1 d. 1686—Aug. Moreto, about 1654, another dramatist.
Andrew Marvel, 1620-78, letters and The drama remains under a cloud till the | poems.	_________________________ Restoration._________________________________
patronised by the queen of Charles I Prynne's ‘ Histriomastix,’ 1633.
1642-47 Ordinances of the Long Parlia-! Villegas, d. 1669, the Spanish Anacreon, ment qpiiut suge plays.	jw *	lh,
Spanish Rabelais.
de Ronsard, d. 1585, called the of French poets.
Education, which during the dark ages had been confined to monasteries, the clergy, and some few of noble rank, receives a vast impulse by the discovery of the art of printing, and the Reformation ; the latter creating a new desire for knowledge among almost every class, and the former facilitating the means of acquiring it.
The
foundations of Oxford Cambridge, ranking the foremost universities of the world for wealth, learning, and knowledge, and the great schools of Winchester, 1373, Eton, 1440, Ac., had raised the intellectual and moral character of the English nation, and more especially of her clergy, to a high point of celebrity.
and
among t
Erasmus, d. 1536—treatise de pueris Instituendis.
Colei, d. 1519, founder of St. Paul’s school, 1509, tutor to queen Elizabeth. He was so highly esteemed by Erasmus, that he calls him the unicus praceptor.
About 1524.
Luther and Melancthon, by their writings and exertions, promote the work of education, especially in Germany.
Luther's letter to the magistrates of all the cities of Germany,
Period from the Reformation to the Thirty Years' War.
Melchior Pfinzting, 1481-1535, ‘Tewr-dannek,’ an epic.
Sacred lyrical poetry cultivated by the protestant clergy, Ac.
Martin Luther and his contemporaries.
Formation of the German drama :
Bans Baobs, 1696-1576,
shoe-maker and meisteratinger at Nuremberg—author of numerous facetious pieces and revels—founder of the German drama.
Jacob Ayrer, d. about 1618, dramatist.
Many English comedians in Germany— plays at the Marrionet theatre.
Johann Fischart, 1511-1581, satirist and translator of Rabelais.
Roger Ascham, 1515-68, tutor of queen Elizabeth, ‘The Schoolmaster.*
Foundation of Brasennose, Corpus, and Christ Church, Oxford, as well as of other colleges. Numerous free-grammar schools in various parts of England.
Rollenhagen, d. 1 a mock heroic.
)9, ‘ FroschmSusler,’
Catholic Lyrics:—Balde, d. 1608— Von Spee, d. 1635, jesuit—Ang. Sile-sius, d. 1677, mystic poet.
Protestant Lyrics:—Paul Melissus, d. 1602—Rud. Weckherlin, about 1651.
Paul Gerhardt, d. 1676, the finest sacred lyric poet after Luther.
Paul Flemming, d. 1640,
Martin Oplts, 1597-1639,
the father of modem German poetry— the French school introduced.
Andreas Gryphius, 1616-64, father of the modem German drama.
Logau, d. 1635, epigrams—Lauremberg, d. 1659, satires.
Hofflnannswaldau, 1618-79, and Lohen-stein, d. 1683, bombastic writers.
Sundry Ballons.
Foundation of Jesuit colleges about the middle of the sixteenth century, by the Pope, in opposition to the Protestant schools.
The firat at Coimbra, in Portugal -the celebrated Aqua Viva, d. 1015, the planner of the Jesuits' school system. This order regarded education as their great Instrument; In Catholic nations it fell almost entirely Into their hands; the lower, as well as the higher, and even the highest classes, were under their tuition.
The circle of learning still too confined—men scarcely yet dared to think as they would, and still less did they dare to communicate what they thought.
Poles: — Kochanowski, 1532-84, the Polish Pindar—Sarbiewski, 1595-1640, Latin odes; the Polish Horace.
Dutch Poets, ^c.:—Pieter Com. Hooft, 1581-1647, tragedy and pastoral.
Jost van der Vondel, 1587-1679, the greatest dramatic poet of Holland.
Jacob Cats, 1577-1660, the Dutch Fontaine.
Lord Bacon, d. 1626, reformer of philosophy, by his ‘ Advancement of Learning,’ and other works, improves the method of communicating and acquiring knowledge.
Table xxi.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
A. C. 1650 to 1792.
62
Government.	Politics and Foreign Relations.	Legislation and Jurisprudence.	Finance.
Fifth Period continued—Absolute Monarchies. 1093 First breaking up of a Polish diet by the Liberum veto—the privilege of every noble : np to this time the exercise of it had been respectfully restrained; and Sizinski, who first brought it Into use, has been generally denounced. 1653 Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector of England. 1683 Absolute monarchy established la Franoe i the king declares In parliament, with a riding-whip In his hand, “I'etat e’ett moi” (lam the itate.J 1653 Re-establishment of Intendants in France, wholly dependent upon the minister, as deputy managers in all military, financial, judicial, and police matters. The division of France into thirty-two general-intendancies continued till the Revolution, when Necker sought to place the government of the provinces under representative corporations. The Revolntion created municipalities—Napoleon set them aside, and created prefect*.- and the latter eyetem of centralisation has also been preserved by the new regulations for the departments and municipalities of 1833. In Germany the collegial system holds—-the county colleges being composed partly of doctors and partly of the nobility. In England the ancient Anglo-Saxon system has been preserved. The affaire of the counties are managed by justices of the peace and grand juries, who meet at Quarter Sessions. These Justices are appointed by the minister of the day, who, of course, leans towards his party; but, whoever may he minister, the present system gives to the landed aristocracy almost absolute power over all county affairs: they administer their own game and poor laws, and return their own members to parliament. 1660 Absolute monarchy in Denmark, and depression of the nobles: The third estate confer absolute power upon the king—the nobles still enjoy all great state places—new creations of nobility 1071. Restoration of the Stuarts in England, 1660. 1670 Austrian despotism in Hungary under Leopold I. 1679 The Habeas Corpus Act establishes personal security in England. Arbitrary imprisonments (Lettres de Cachet) in common use in France. 1687	Hungary an hereditary monarchy in the male line, under Leopold I. The crown declared no longer elecUve, and the right of resistance annulled. 1688	Seoond Revolution In England I Abdication of James II.—Accession of William III., prince of Orange.—The people take litUe part in this change, and get nothing by it: the aristocracy are still all in all. 1080 Bill of Rights: legislation and taxation only by parliament—right of petition secured—no standing army In time of peace—freedom of speech in parliament—see p. 42 b. 1692 Liberty of the Press in England.—The surest guarantee of national liberty, which can never be destroyed while it lasts, but by want of virtue in the people. The stamp duty, and the want of a national system of education, still deprive the third estate of ibis security. 1697 Last meeting of the Cortes in Portugal. 1701 Act of Settlement in England: limiting .the power of the crown, and increasing that of the aristocracy—see p. 42. Whigs and Tories first heard of about 1704.—The great difference between these two parties, in principles, is, that the tory venerates all that exists, and fears to risk improvement, lest he should destroy: while the whig is for lopping away abuses, and for safe and continuous progress towards social perfection—thus the tory dreads knowledge, lest it should disturb society: the whig loves it, because it Improves society. The liberty of the press, the right of free inquiry, toleration, and any extension of political power to the people, are all violently opposed by the tory, and advocated by the whig—the former loves his country, but in it he only sees (he crown, the church, and the landed aristocracy; the patriotism of the whig Includes all these, and professes to take in besides the great body of the people. 1707 Union of England and Scotland [see p. 42]. 1713 Despotic monarchy in Spain: National liberty completely overthrown by the French house of Anjou—(he Jnstiaia in Aragon abolished—Salic law of succession established—Ministry of A1 be roni till 1710. Pragmatic Sanction in Austria, in favour of Maria Theresa [see p. 43 c]. The monarchy indivisible and hereditary in the first-born, of male or female descent. 1716 The Bill of Rights infringed in England under George I. by seven year parliaments and a standing army. 1720-	43 Swedish crown again elective upon the death of Charles XII. The supreme power In the hands of the states and the perpetual state-council—Diet every three years, for three months—the states have legislative power, and of war and peace, independently of the king. 1721-	42 Ministry of Walpole, and systematic corruption of the House of Commons by the government [see p. 42 e]. Peter the Great in Russia allowed arbitrarily to name his successor. Law in Russia respecting the fourteen grades of nobility, which are setUed according to military rank: eight hereditary; six personal. Administration of Fleury in France, 1726-43. Administration of Pitt the elder in England, 1757-61. 1764 Russian despotism in Poland under Catharine II. 1770 Freedom of the Press in Denmark till 1799. 1771-74 Dissolution of the parliament of Paris. 1772 First depression of the aristocracy of Sweden by Gustavus III. New constitution: the government restored to what It was in 1700—consent of the states necessary for legislation, taxation, and offensive war—the Imperial chamber to counsel: the king to decide. 1778 Revolt of the English Colonies of Vorth Amerioai Declaration Of Independence, 1770.	1787 Constitution : the thirteen united states a federative republic —a president every four years—a congress composed of two chambers, the senate, and house of representatives: the first example of the representation of a whole nation without reference to rank or property—universal suffrage—no qualification required for members, who are allowed six dollars a-day each for their expenses— Washington the first President, till 1707 (d. 1700): one of the greatest patriots that ever lived. Each of the separate states, forming together the United States, has its separate government and constitution: in all, the government Is divided into the three parts of executive, legislative, and Judicial—they all adopt the representative principle—they are all republican. No titled nobility—trial by jnry—freedom of the press—no established religion—right of all to bear arms and to petition government Sixth Ferlodi Revolutionary Period—foundation of constitutional governments, 1792. The French Revolution gives new force to the opinion of the sovereignty of the people: the Declaration of the rights of man fixes the original foundation of government upon liberty and equality. Struggle between this natural, reasonable, and unalienable right of the people, with the prescriptive right of the feudal nobility and the divine right of kings^—In France, the ancient feudal system, which there had become dreadfblly oppressive, was overthrown In one night, and the hereditary nobility and clergy destroyed. Improvement in constitutional government by the establishment of a well-balanced system, composed of the people, the aristocracy, and king. Struggle of liberalism with aristocracy and despotism. Rise of the new aristocracy of the doctrinaires, viz. of Intelligence and learning—of officials and capitalists. The Trench Revolution—see p. 40 b. Declaration of the rights of man, upon the motion of La Fayette, 20th Aug., 1780, the foundation of the first constitution—freedom and equality, the free and unfettered development of the human powers : establishment of the three great supports of free government, freedom of the press, trial by jury, and the national guard—the municipal system restored—ancient distinction of ranks destroyed : all Frenchmen are citizens, and as such equal—the ancient division of provinces done away, and France divided into eighty-three departments. 1701 France a constitutional monarchy:—the suffrage qualification fixed at the payment of direct taxes to the amount of three days’ labour, (2s. fid.)—no qualification for candidates. Act of uDion and security in Sweden by the dissolution of the perpetual council, by which the king obtains the right of war and peace. 1792 The French Repttblie: sovereignty of the people proclaimed.	1652 Rivalry of England and Holland i project of the Protector, upon gaining possession of Dunkirk, to fonnd a continental trading state in the Spanish Netherlands. Alliance of Cromwell with Mazarine against Spain. Foundation of English power In the West Indies, by the capture of jamaloa under Cromwell. 1659	Preponderance of France in the west and south of Europe-under Louis XIV., upon the peace of Westphalia and the Pyrenees.—Spain declines to a second-rate power. 1660	Sweden obtains the balance in the east and north by the peace of Olivia: Livonia falls to Sweden.—-The superiority of Poland completely overthrown. 1077 Lotus XIV. renews his attack upon the Spanish Nethet lands, and obtains by degrees considerable portions of them—Franehe Comtl, 1081; also Strasbnrg, from Germany, a place of first-rate importance. England, after the Restoration, without influence in the affairs of Europe—both Charles and James despicable pensioners of Louis XIV. 1675 Foundation of Prussian power laid by the victory of Fehrbellin over Sweden. 1678 First war between Russia and Turkey. 1070 Pondicherry the principal seat of the French in the East Indies. 1681	The French language supersedes the Latin in diplomacy. 1682	Coalition of Austria, Poland, Venice, and Russia, to stay the progress of the Turks. 1683	The Turks for the second time before Vienna—John Sobieski, another Charles Martel, delivers Europe. 1689 The accession of William of Orange to the English throne leads this power to interfere with all its strength in the politics of Europe. 1699	The Turks lose their predominance >by the peace of Carlowitz. 1700	Great Northern war between the rivals Charles XIL of Sweden and Peter the Great. Coalition of Poland, Russia, Denmark, and afterwards England and Prussia, against Sweden. The Eighteenth Century Is remarkable for the European wars sf Succession i Two great Wars of Succession: the Spanish and Austrian. Two lesser: the Polish and Bavarian. 1700	Extinction of the Spanish house of Haps-burg—Partition treaty for the Spanish monarchy, and Spanish War of Succession till 1714. Coalition of Austria, etc. against France [see p. 42, 43.] Partition of the Spanish monarchy between France and Austria: Spain to the French house of Anjou; Belgium and Lombardy become Austrian provinces. 1713 Britannia mistress at sea. 1721	Russia predominates in the North: Sweden declines: Peter obtains the Baltic provinces at the peace of Nystadt, and takes the title of Emperor. 1722	First interference of Russia in Persian affairs: npon the overthrow of the empire of the Sofis by the Afghans under Nadir Shah—ths Caucasus now opened. 1739 France, by the treaty of Vienna, obtains Lorraine—the last portion of the ancient kingdom of Lothairc, the possession of which had been the cause of a straggle for cen-tnrics between France and Austria. Rivalry of England and France in the East Indies, 1730, upon the overthrow of the great Mogul empire by Nadir Shah. 1760 Pragmatic Sanction in favour of Maria Theresa, upon failure of male issue in the Haps-burg house of Austria—War of the Austrian succession till 1748—France, Spain, Bavaria, and Prussia, against Austria: Beginning of the rivalry between Austria and Prussia. 1756 Celebrated alliance of Versailles between Austria and France, (after 300 years' rivalry,) against Prussia and England. 1786-63 Seven Year** war 1 France against England, and Austria against Prussia—Coalition of Rnssia, Austria, France, and Sweden, against Prussia. 1797 Establishment of the English power in India by the victory of Plassy in Bengal, gained by Clive—annihilation of French power in this quarter. 1701	Boueseau’e Social Contract gives birth to the notion of the sovereignty of the people, and becomes for the favourers of popular rights what Machiavef* Prince bad been for monarebs. 1763 Fall of French predominancy by the peace of Paris—Rise of the English sole dominion over the sea, and great power in the two Indies and North America. Prussian power firmly-established by the peace Of Huheritburg. 1704 Russian dictatorship in Poland. 1709 British predominancy In the East Indiet: by the treaty of Allahabad England obtains the fruitful province of Bengal—so widely has she here extended her dominions, that more than one-sixth part of the human race now obey her sceptre. 1707 War with the Mahrattas. 1772-09 Alliance of Russia, Prussia, and Austria for ths partition of Poland. 1774 Foundation of Russian predominance in the East by the peace of Kntchuk Kalnaidji with Turkey [48 f]. 1776 The Republic of the United States of Horth America founded—Revolt of the English colonies in North America—Coalition of North America, France, Spain, and Holland, against England— Peace of Versailles, 1783. 1783 Rnssia occupied with the Crim-Project, for the reestablishment of the Creek empire at Constantinople— Rnssia becomes a naval power — foundation of Odessa. The French Revolution] First outbreak of the struggle between kings and peoples— Cabinet policy for the first time broken— Predominating influence of public opinion. 1702	Decree of the National Convention to assist as brothers all nations, who, to establish liberty, should rebel against their governments.	1000 The hinge of Denmark obtain unlimited legislative authority. Legislation of Louis XIV. of France: civil causes, 1667; criminal, with torture, 1770. Unjust executions in France (the case of John Calas.even in 1702, is rendered celebrated by Voltaire)—Incarceration of the Iron math, (pretended twin brother of Lonis XIV.) at Pigneroland in the Bastile. 1681 Legislation of William Penn in America: founded opon jnstice and perfect liberty of conscience. 1683 Code of laws for Denmark by Christian. No foreign laws have any force in Denmark. 1711 The Russian directing senate erected into the supreme tribunal of the empire by Peter the Great. 1720 By the new form of government the legislative power is secured to the Swedish parliament—new code, 1734. Fifth Period—Great improvement in European legislation from the time of Montesquieu. Project for general codes of law in the language of the people, after the French Revolution, and foundation of constitutional governments: restoration of the people to a share in legislation and the administration of justice. 1768 Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws, by which he becomes the creator and founder of the new philosophy of practical justice. 1755 Death of Cocoeji, High Chancellor of Prussia	the first Prussian reformer of the administration of justice, and compiler of a burgher code. 1776 Abolition of torture by Maria Theresa in Germany—in France at the Revolution. Filangieri begins his celebrated work,Scienza della Legislazione, which remained unfinished at his death, 1788. 1780 Death of the celebrated Blackstone, author of Commentaries on the Laws of England: a clearer exposition and eulogy of the system as it then stood, hot containing little to advance the science. 1780	Legislation of Frederic II. — New Prussian ordinance for the administration of justice — 1776 Ordinance that no civil process shall last above a year—strict separation of the judicial and executive powers. 1781	Legislation of Joseph II.—new civil code, 1786—criminal code, 1787. Punishment of death abolished in Austria. 1786 Leopold’s criminal code for Tuscany. 1703 Death of Bbccaria, anthor of Crimes and Punishments.	Indirect taxation—prohibitive system-rise of National debts. About 1690 The nobility of Germany and France tax-free: the ancient costom, by which the knights served personally in the army, and the burghers and peasantry were employed in hanrii-cralt and Held labour, waa completely changed, to the great disadvantage of the people, of whom the armies were now principally formed, the places of command and profit being alone kept for the nobility; the people being also compelled to pay the heavy taxes necessary to keep up the large standing armies. In England the principle of equal taxation wts very early established—the aristocracy have never been tax free; yet having the power in their own hands, they have taken care to place the great weight of taxation on the shoulders of the Industrious classes, to the relief of their own. 1091 Origin of the prohibitive system in England, by the Navigation Act of Oliver Cromwell. 1099 First sinking-fund in Holland. 1600 The Civil List first introduced at the Restoration in England. Feudal tenures abolished. The king of Denmark obtains unlimited power of taxation. 1661-83 Colbert’s Financial ministration in France. The mercantile system; money the criterion of national wealth. Few men have possessed a higher spirit of enterprise than Colbert: he introduced manufactures, negotiated commercial treaties, and opened an active Intereouree with tbe East, sending ambassadors to almost every monarchy. His plans and undertakings took In the whole earth ; and, but for tbe very expensive wars of Lonis XIV., France most have been the most flourishing of kingdoms. He raised the national Income to 110,000,000 llvres, and called Into life tbe burgher class, which has since overthrown the French aristocratic nobility. 1009 Arbitrary taxation in Spain from the time of tbe last kings of the house of Hapsbnrg. 1070	Monopoly of tobacco in Austria—in France, 1074. 1071	Imperial declaration that the princes of the Empire should not impose taxes without the consent of the landed proprietors. 1IM0 Increase of the national income in Sweden by the confiscation of the alienated crown lands. 1081 Excise, and, 1082, Stamp Acts, In Prossia. 1087 Ordinance of Lonis XIV. respecting doties, completely establishing the prohibitive system it France. Increase of taxes in England during the French wars : system of indirect taxation established by parliament ; the excise, from which however the necessaries of life, as meat, corn, etc., are exempt. 1600 Imposition of the land-tax; first at three •hillings in the ponnd—it continued after to be granted annually, at different rates, bnt commonly at fonr shillings in the ponnd, till it was made perpetnal, 1708. 1004 Commencement of the English national debt, of the funding eyetem, and of the subsidiary system, under William III. The National Debt at William’s death was £10,394,702—the supplies annually raised during the war about £9,000,000. Great increase of taxation in France, during the wars against England, and war of tbe Spanish succession—1602 Sale of municipal offices—1099 the capitation, a general poll-tax npon tbe cities freed from the taille—1710 Tax of tbe tenth and twelfth penny npon every kind of property. 1710 Increase of taxation in Austria, daring the war agaiust Prance: excise on bread, beer, meat, etc. 1719 The French revenue, which, at the death of Henry IV., 1010, was only 30,000,000 livres, st the death of Lonis XIV. amounted to 100,000,000. The system of collecting the taxes by Arming them was so wretched, that only one-third of what was paid came into the treasury. Louis XIV.left a debt ofSfiOO,000,000 llvres. 1718 Law, a Scotchman, tampers with the French finances: a bank established under tbe name of Law and Co., its notes are accepted as sterling money—speculations of the most extravagant kind take place. He is made comptroller-general, 1720—reaction takes place, the people demand gold, and the bubble hursts. Thousands of families are rained, as also the credit of the government: after this no paper money conld be issued iu France. Great corruption and extravagance of the French court—the celebrated Beaumarchais obtains upoD one occasion 1,000,000 livres for secret service. 1721 Poll-tax in Russia by Peter the Great—only paid by burghers and peasantry, the nobility free. 1724 First stamped newspapers in England. 1747 The prohibitive system adopted in Holland —in Austria, 1792. 1798 Quesnay’s Tableau Econcmique: the foundation of the Physiocratic system. It makes agriculture tbe only source of national well-being. Turgot’s (tbe most celebrated of Qnesnay’s scholars) Recherches sur la nature de I’origin des richeseee nationales, 1774—the doctrines of this school attacked the existing principles of government, as they led to a system of political equality. 1703 National debt of England increased to £104,000,000.—In order to pay the interest government wishes to tax the North American colonics, which leads to the revolution there. New house and window tax. 1774 Income of France npon the death of Lonis XV. 5qo,000,000 livres. 1779	Turgot finance minister in France. 1774-83 England prosecutes the war against North American liberty at an expense of about £130,000,000. Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations: an Immortal work 1—Labour the basis of national prosperity —free trade—free manufactures. Fr. Say, ((Economie Politique, 1803,) and Ricardo, (Political Economy, 1823,) hla principal scholars. Necxeb, (banker of Geneva,) Finance minister of France: his celebrated compte rendu, or financial statement, published In 1781—200,000 copies 1 1781 Joseph II.’s system of taxation causes an insurrection In Hnngary, and cannot be enforced. 1780	Pitt’s sinking fund:—tee p. 40 d.—done away as useless, 1820. 1787 Catonne's financial proposal for France: to do away with the taille, and to replace it by a property tax, to be paid bv noblca as well as nonnoble.—The notables, seeing in this proposal nothing less than the spoliation of the nobility, separate without giving it their sanction.—The following is a comparative statement of the Income and taxes in livres of the three estates before the Revolntion: Clergy. Nobility. People. Persons . . . 300,000 190,000 24,000/000; Income . . . 370,000,000 380,000,000 1,409,000,000 ahead 1233 2973 01 ( 27,000,000 01,000,000 038/100,000 Paying in I M4|h ieth 2-3nls taxes • • [^ 0f income, of income, of income. Who can wonder at the violence of the French Revolntion 1 1780-01 Ruin of the French finances the immediate cause of the Revolution : introduction of the right of tbe French people to tax themselves— nobles no longer exempt from taxation—equal j distribution of taxation.
b
c
d
A. c. 1650 to 1792. MODERN CIVILISATION, SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE.
63
Complete change in the military system, and adoption of light arms and light clothing during the period of Louis XIV.
1660 Disbanding of the ordinance companies, a remnant of the ancient lancers—light horse and dragoons instead—1670, 71 First grenadier and light infantry regiments — introduction of flints to muskets—1665 First marine school pt Rochefort—1666 Cadet school at Paris—1671 Hotel des Invalids standing Swiss body guards — 167*2 Military uniform generally adopted.
1666-91 Louvois war-minister in France.
Vauban's, the greatest military architect of his day (d. 1707), system of fortification—bastions, citadels, block-houses, parallels, &c. He fortified 300 places, each with triple lines, to protect France from Belgium.
Great improvement in the French artillery—formation of a separate corps of miners, sappers, &c. Commissions in the French army purchasable and greatly increased.
1675 Victory of the elector of Brandenburg over the Swedes at Fehr-beliin—Turenne slain at Sasbach— succeeded by Luxembourg.
1678 Great standing armies in Europe after the peace of Nimeguen—Ymnce 140,000 men •Austria (1690) 97,000—France becomes a sea power: 60,000 1681.
War and Marine.
Agriculture,
PEA8ANTBY, etc.
Trade and Manufactures.
1689 No standing army in England in times of peace, according to the Bill of Rights.
Bayonets come into qse—pikes go out.
1694 The French marine destroyed at the battle of the Hogue.
1697	Victory of prince Eugene over the Turks.
1698	Rise of Russian navy—in this year Peter has 60 vessels building in the ports of the Black sea.
1700 Victory of Karra, gained by Charles XII. with 9,000 men over Peter the Great with 80,000. After this defeat the czar disciplines a new army upon the German model.
1707	Bill to recruit the army in England, by a forced conscription of men from each parish, rejected ; but another passed for raising a body of troops out of persons having no lawful calling.
Parish officers were thus enabled to press men for the land service: an unconstitutional act, and liable to great abuses. It was renewed several times during the war; and again revived in 1757, but never since.
1708	Celebrated campaign of Charles XII. in the Ukraine.
1709	Peter annihilates the Swedish forces at Pultowa—14,000 Swedes driven to Siberia. See 45, a.
1713 Peace of Utrecht—maritime regulations—the English, masters of the sea.
1715	Standing army in Hungary.
1716	First standing army in England. See 42, d.
1726	Decline of the French navy, under card. Fleury.
1727	Folard's Commentate sur Polybe.
1653 General insurrection of the peasantry in Switzerland against taxes and other oppressions.
1661 Decline of agriculture in France in consequence of Colbert’s mercantile system—exportation of corn forbidden. 1680 Insurrection of the peasantry in Bohemia, against the feudal service under the emp. Leopold. It led to a law by which the peasantry were in future to work only three days a week for their lords instead of five or six, as they had hitherto done.
1728 Brazil diamond mines.
1758 Quesnay's Physio-cratic system — agriculture the basis of national prosperity.
Yet, in 1760, half France was uncultivated — in 1792 only one-fourth was uncultivated, and the population increased from 20 to 26 millions. At present about one-eighth is uncultivated. 1761 Potatoes first planted in France by Turgot. 1765 Spanish sheep brought into Saxony. .766 Gradual emancipation of agricultural slaves in Denmark.
1775	Insurrection of the peasantry in Bohemia against feudal oppressions.
1776	First legislative regulation of feudal labour in France.
Previous to the revolution two-thirds, according to others three-fourths, of the land of France in the hands of the nobility and clergy, almost entirely free from taxes; upon the remaining third or fourth, in the hands of the burghers and peasants, was levied three-fourths of the land tax, amounting to 26,000,000 livres.
1740 Frederic II. of Prussia—improves the army, and increases it from 75,000 to 200,000—he ates a new system of manoeuvres, and first introduces flying hone artillery. From the battle of Mol-witz, 1741, he is victorious in almost every contest, although at times opposed to nearly all Europe. Great improvement of cavalry— his generals, Seidlitsr and Ziethen.
1757 The French lose all their military renown at Rossback.
1775 Introduction of riflemen in the American war.
1776 Montalbert’s system of fortification.
1779 Floating batteries at the siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards.
1783 Russian naval power in the Black sea, after the occupation of the Crimea.
1651 English navigation act by Cromwell-renewed by Charles II., 1668, origin of the English prohibitive system.
Founded upon the two principles that England alone should trade with her colonies; and that foreign vessels should only carry to them the produce of their own land!
1655 England captures Jamaica from Spain, and gains a sure footing in the W. Indies.
1661-83 Trade and manufactures protected in France by the mercantile system of Colbert.
First tariff of duties, 1664—foundation of the French prohibitive system—East and West India companies — Pondicherry the chief colony—1667 Gobelin tapestry-manufactory at Paris.
While England and France held to the prohibitive system, the affairs of Holland flourished	.!• .TN
under that of free trade—which she con- AlgemonS^dney, 1621-63, a Republican: ‘Dis-*:—j *:n	—:jji- -/■ .v- ,o.v —— courses on Government,’in answer to Filmer.
All power to come from the people, who may make it over to one,or a few; bot always retain the power to resist tyranny.
The political notions of the English revolutionists spread throughout Europe.
England :—James Harrington, 1611-77, Oceana—the model of a constitution founded democracy—William Allen, 1658, the killing a tyrant no murder.
Robert Filmer, the oracle of the high tory , party, Patriarchs, or the natural power of kings.
A most extravagant deduction of the divine right of kings from scripture—no lawful government but absolute monarchy—all opposition to it is rebellion.
pher, oracle of the Whig party.
All men free and equal by natnre—the object of government Is the security of person and property— the condition, the submission of the individnal will to that of the majority—this majority, or their representatives, to possess the legislative power, which ' be separated from the executive, or the govern-cannot be lawful. Hence he argues for a mixed representative constitution.
In Germany and Holland a school of natural and international law becomes formed, at the head of which stands
Samuel v. Puffendorf, 1632-94.
His Jurisprudents universalis and Jus Natural et
Abolition of territorial oppressions, of patrimonial tribunals, and tithes — equal divisions of landed property in the sale of the national domains, of the clergy and emigrants: consequent creation of an immense body of free landed proprietors, the foundation of the present strength France. It is estimated that it now contains from four and a half to five millions of landed proprietors in a population of 32 millions. This has occasioned the population to increase from 24 to 32 millions, in spite of continual wars.
Great decrease of landed proprietors in England: In England, on the contrary, in 1786, there were 250,000 landed proprietors, and in 1822 only 20,000—the church and corporations, have each about 6,000 proprietors; and including these, the whole land of four teen millions of inhabitants is in the hands of some thirty thousand individuals, let out to farmers and leaseholders.
The great landed proprietors are about 400: among these the duke of Northumberland alone possesses a rental of 100 to 120 thousand pounds a year—he and twenty-one other of the English aristocracy, have an annual income of about £1,680,000, giving an average of £80,000 each.
In Spain three-fourths of the land belongs to the clergy, or the eldest sons of the nobility.
1793 Encouragement of agriculture in England, in order to make the country independent of foreigners for a supply during the war.
tinued till the middle of the 18th century,
1680 The English East India Company opens a trade with China.
1685 French manufactures diminished by the driving away of the industrious Huguenots John Locke, <L 1704, the celebrated philoso-upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes. nl’“r nrn‘,u - whin ™~i..
39, c. These refugees give a new impulse to the manufactories of England, Sweden, and Brandenburg.
1692 Municipal governments of the French cities completely dissolved—municipal offices sold—mayors and procurators of the king appointed.
169ft Bank of England Incorporated i
now the most celebrated and richest in the world.
1698 Second East India Company.
About 1700 first manufactories in Denmark and in Russia: in the latter 500 were established in the next 50 years.
1703 Methuen treaty between England and Portugal. 42, a.
1708 Incorporation of the United BrltUh£Sut India? Company i the
greatest trading society ever formed. See below, 1765.
1714	Rise of commerce in Austria—first manufactories—bank at Vienna, 1714—commercial company at Trieste, 1721—company at Ostend, 1722-31—foundation of Trieste harbour, 1750.
1715	Law’s bank at Paris.
1721 Rise of Russian trade under Peter the
Great—1727 Trade with China at Kiachta.
About 1740, flourishing period of Irish linen manufactory, and English steel and cutlery.
1759 Numerous canals in England — the Bridgewater, between Liverpool and Manchester, the first.
1759 Cotton printing establishment at Ober-kampe, near Versailles.
The successful application of machinery to the industrial arts in England, gives a new impulse to trade and manufactures.
1707 First (pinning machine in England by James Hargrave—1774 The wonderful spinning Jenny invented by Robt. Arkwright -1775 Further improved by Sam. Crompton, who, by combining the discoveries of Hargrave and Arkwright, produced the mole Jenny—other improvements have *’— made by n. Kelly, and others.
17ftft The steam engine of Watt and Bolton i
By these two discoveries England rises to the highest pitch of prosperity; every part of the world being henceforward supplied with her
0,000,000
__________________________________ —in 1830
250,000,000 pounds were imported, and 1,250,000 men employed—Incredible wealth accumulated by capitalists, but much wretchedness and poverty has been the lot of the workmen. The an Bering of the hand-loom weavers has been beyond description, while they have Increased in numbers spite of machines.
1765 Foundation of the great empire of the East India Company in the East Indies: 40,000 Europeans rule over 120,000,000 natives. London the market of the World.
Flourishing trade of Liverpool, Glasgow, §c. The Spanish government gives up the monopoly of the W. Indian trade.
1770 French East India Company broken up. 1775 The exclusive privileges of guilds or trading communities abolished in France by Turgot.
About 1780, flourishing period of Austrian manufactures.
Flourishing trade in W edgewood-ware at Etruria in England:
Wedgewood, the Inventer, from whom this manufacture takes its name, d. 1795—they make to the amount of a million yearly.
England loses her North Americas colonies. 1783 Trade of Russia in the Black sea—bank at Petersburg, 1786—Odessa founded, 1792. 1787 First spinning machine in France.
1789 French Revolution: principle of free trade and manufactures—overthrow of the mercantile system—abolition of Import duties, Sic.—Restoration of municipalities and communes with popular election to civic offices.
1791 National bank in the U. S. of N. America, at Philadelphia (new national bank, 1816).
1792 Pitt's prohibitive system: Nothing to be procured from foreigners which could be produced in England—raw materials from abroad to be manufactured here—the dominion of the «**» to be preserved at alt price.
1795 The Scheldt, closed 1648, re-opened.
Political Science and
Oratory.
The study of civil and political law flourishes in Germany throughout the 17th and 18th Centuries.
Professors at Halle:—Thomasius, dL 1728— J. H. Bochmer, d. 1749—Gundling, d. 1729.
Aehenwall, at Gdttingen, 1750.
J. Jac. Moser, d. 1785, of Stuttgard, and his son, F. C. Moser, d. 1798—Witter, d. 1807, the most celebrated of the German political lawyers.
In France.—S. Pierre, d. 1743, project for perpetual peace—Burlamaqui, d. 1748, his Law of Nature and Nations—St. Real, d. 1752, his Science of Government, the fruit of thirty years’study—Vat tel, d. 1767, his Law of Nations, a work of great authority—D'Ar-genson, d. 1764.
Period of Montesquieu and Rousseau to the French Revolution.
BXonteaqnlen, 1689-1755,
his celebrated Spirit of Laws, 1748.
Jean faquei Rousseau, d. 1778,
his Discourse upon the inequality among men, and his Social Contract.
Rousseau brings nations from a state of nature to a state of civilised society by a social contract— sovereignty of the people wholly intransferable — government, merely a commilteo appointed by the sovereign people.
Great influence of the French Encyclopedists in the spread of political ideas.
The Abbe Raynal, d. 1796.
Numerous Writers since the French
Civilisation in General.
IV. Period.—Age of Louis XIV. to French Revolution.
The court of Louis XIV. gave the tone to the rest of Europe: French taste, manners, and language generally predominated.
With Descartes began modem abstract philosophy—with Newton, the better study of mechanics, physics, and great mathematical calculations—Bayle opened the philosophical century of France, which flourished under Voltaire, Rousseau, and others of that stamp.
Flourishing period of modern French classical poetry, especially in the drama— Corneille, Racine, Moliere—the critic Boileau.
French school of painters, philosophers, philologists, and historians.
The study of oriental literature prosecuted in France:—Herbelot, d. 1695—Gotland, <L 1715—Du Halde, 1743.
First tnoslalion of the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments—Missionaries to Chius, fltc.—Travels of Chardin, Tavernier, See.
French Academy of Painting and Sculpture, 1648 — des Inscriptions, 1663 — Acad, des Sciences, 1666—de Musique, 1669—Acad, of Architecture at Paris, 1671—Bibliotheque de Roi, 1667—Journal des Savans, 1665, the most ancient literary periodical in Europe.
England.—Restoration of the Stuarts, 1660— Royal Society—Philosophical Transactions— Firet regular newspaper The London Gazette, 1665.
Sidney, Dryden, Cudworth, Locke, Newton, Wren.
Seat of theological and classical literature:— Walton’s Polyglot—Jo. Owen—Math. Poole —Rich. Baxter, 1615-91—the Critici Sacra, Ac.
Philologists:—H. Hody—Jo. Barnes, 1712 —Jo. Hudson, d. 1719—Wells—S. Clarke, 1729—Bentley, d. 1742—M. Maittaire, d. 1747 — Conyers Middleton, 1750 — Jo. Potter, 1747.
Orientalists:—Thos. Hyde—Ed. Pococke —Simon Ockley—L. Chappelow.
Gradual extension of the colonial system.
Liberty of the press la England, 1692.
Great progress of the natural sciences from the time of Newton.
About 1700 great advance of literature, i ence, and art in England.
British Essayists.
Swift, Pope, Richardson (father of modem novel writers), Addison—the great historians, Hume, Gibbon, and Robertson—Gentleman's Magazine, for literature and criticism, the first iu England. The great statesman, Pitt, &c.
Wonderful progress of the industrial arts, manufactures, and trade, by the application of machinery.
Collections of pictures and statues formed— the British Museum, 1753—Handel, thegreat
In England.—The Political Dialogues David Hume, d. 1776.
1776 Adam Smith, founder of tho study of political economy.
Letters of Junius, 1769-71.
Delolme, d. 1806, ‘ Histoiy of the English Constitution.’
Blackstone, d. 1780, ‘Commentaries on the Laws and Government of England.’
Great Speakers in parliament:
William Pitt, Lord Chatham, d. 1778—Rich. Brinsley Sheridan—Edward Burke, d. 1797.
The revolution in the British colonies of North America gives rise to much political discus-
Tom Paine, 1737-1800:
the friend of Franklin and Washington—bis Common Sense had a marked influence on the American revolution; and his Rights of Man, written in reply to Bnrke, had a vast circulation: he teaches that the best government is only a necessary evil—that the English government consists of the old tyranny of the monarch and aristocracy, with a small mixture of republicanism—that monarchy, and the hereditary principle, have plonged the world in blood and flre.—'The fate of Charles 1. has made kings more crafty and apprehensive, but not more wise or Just. He was a disbeliever Id revelation; and hla works,
General and vast improvement of the country, which becomes the most flourishing of the world in wealth and civilisation.
Holland the seat of classical studies and learning—Hemsterhuis.
1703 Firet Russian newspaper.
Flourishing period of modern German music.
New weights and measures in France—based,
1801, upon the decimal division.
Polytechnic school at Paris model for Europe.
1798 First cotton spinning machine in Swit-
17?9^umcipal	by	American revolution-
the First Consul—system qf centralisation.
Prefects, mayors, municipal councils appointed by the
lffi)0 Malta acquired by England: whose trade predominates in the Mediterranean.
East and West India docks erected.
1801 Iron railways in England.
1802	First book-fair in New York.
1803	Bank of France by Napoleon-great un-provement in the internal communication of France by new bridges, causeways, canals &c.
viewed with great horror by the Americana and English, were suppressed by Ur
me oi iue groat avtui# »u --------,	.
admired for hla simple-mindedness, honour, aud patriotism.	,	.
Patrick Henry, of Virginia, one of the most able orators in the cause of liberty.
The German SchTozer, d. 1809.
Frederic II. k. qf Prussia, ha Anti-Machiavel,
Italians :—Baptista Vico, d. 1744, Prtnnpto di una scienza nuova—Ftlangieri, 1752-88, Scienza della legislazione.
1740 Epoch of modem nbvels:
Richardsou In England gives the impulse, and is followed by a host of writers in England—by La Fontaine and hla Imitators In Germany—Rousseau, -ftc. In France.
1750 The French school of philosophy at its highest pitch—Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, the Encyclopedists, &c.
Great advance in the study of political science and legislation.
The thinking powers everywhere brought out and exercised—the face of society changed. Lessing becomes the creator and founder of a new and original literature in Germany.
Flourishing period of Belles Lettres in Germany :— Wieland, Goethe, Herder, Schiller, Heyne.
Oriental Literature cultivated
In England by Pococke—Benj: Kennicott, 1718-83.
France, Anquetil du Perron—Deguignes. Germany, Reiske and Michaelis.
1784 Institution of the Asiatic Society ii Calcutta by Sir William Jones, d. 1794, who introduces the knowledge of Hindoo (Sanscrit) literature to Europe.
Persian and Arabic literature cultivated by 1 the English.
a
b
64 Table xxi.
SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF
A. C. 1650 to 1792.
Luxuries, Manners, and Customs.
Taate and Splendour of the French Court from the time of Louie XXV.
1645 First Italian opera in Paris—1698 in London. About 1650 the nobility and gentry, from various states of Europe, begin to visit Paris, as earlier they hod done the cities of Italy and Spin— French civilisation and fashions from this time generally prevail.
1650 Hackney coaches introduced—Lotteries 1657. 1660 Tea used in London.
Louis XIV. introduces the first minuet at Versailles.
1683 Penny post established in London— in Paris, 1759. 1683-92 Kempfer’s travels in Japan.
1685 French refugees spread the language, manners, and fashions of France over the rest of Europe.
The court of Louis XIV., with its magnificence and ceremonies, its long perukes apd formal court dresses, its splendid banquets, balls, concerts, and ballets, its titles and orders, its gallantries, its father-confessors and kept mistresses, becomes the pattern for the other courts of Europe. Period for country pleasure-houses, gardens, parks, water-works, etc. upon the model of those at Versailles, which alone cost 1000 millions of francs—La Valliere, Mon-tespan, Fontange, Malnlenon, etc.
The English court under Cromwell remarkable for its gravity and power—under Charles II. for its licentiousness and weakness.
The nobility forsake their country seats and castles, to share in the pleasures of the court and the favours of the monarch—almost complete separation of the court-like gentry and the third estate.
1715 Under the regency of Philip, duke of Orleans, the frivolity of the French court to its highest pitch.
1728 Behring’s Strait discovered.
The ruins of Herculaneum discovered—Pompeii ab.1750— both buried by an eruption of mount Vesuvius, 79.
In Germany, society retrogrades towards the manners of the middle ages—the various grades become so many castes — bombast, scholastic learning, and sentimentality, prevail — rigid formality in all official matters—a Greek, French, and English mania in manners, and a general indifference as regards politics.
1761-67 Niebuhr’s travels in Arabia.
Extravagant splendour and licentiousness of the Russian court under Catherine II.
While Louis XIV. had his gallery of mistresses, Catherine maintained a guard of favourites: her journey to the Crimea (1787) is remarkable for its extravagance and luxury.
1768-79 Capt. Cook’s three voyages round the world—discovery of Australia, the fifth part of the world.
177* The Improved ■team engine of Watt and Boulton.
1783	Air-balloon by Montgolfier : Blanchard crosses the Channel, 1785.
Argand lamps.
1784	Institution for the deaf and dumb .at Paris, by l’Abbd de l’Epde.
1785 Ilerschel’s telescopes.
1786 Stenography by Taylor.
1787	Panoramas in London by Barker.
Philosophy.
Thomas Campanula, 1568-1639, a Neapolitan, endeavoured, like Bacon, to deduce all knowledge from experiment.
Modifications of the Ionic and Atomistic Schools, by Sebast. Basso, ab. 1621—C. de Guillemert de Beri-
fard, 1578-1667—J. C. Magnenus—Sennert* *etrus Gassendi, 1592-1655 (styled by Gibbon “the most learned of the philosophers of his age, and the most philosophical of the learned”)—and some others.
Materialism of Thomas Hobbes, 1588-1679, a favourer of despotism—he was opposed by Lamb. Velthuysen, a Dutchman, and Richard Cumberland, 1632-1719, in his De Legibus Nature.
Edward, Lord Herbert, of Cherbury, 1581-1648. Mystical Naturalists and Theosophists:
J. Baptist c. Helmont, 1577-1644, carried the study of natural phenomena to a degree of myaticitm—his son, d. 1699, enlarged theknowledge ofthe “divine science”(thcosophy)—AoRFVtuU, d. 1637, supported the enthusiastic system of Paracelsus—as did Jacob Bohm, a German, d. 1624; both endeavoured ' find authority in the Bible for their vain speculations.
Scepticism revived and extended, by Fr. Sanchez, a Portuguese, d. 1632, and Francois de la Mothe le Vayer, d. 1672.
Bene Descartes, 1596-1650, (Cartesius,) opposes the experimental, and introduces a system of pure Rationalism:
his principal followers were De la Forge—Cl. de Clert d. 1686—Rohault, d. 1673—Pierre Syt. Begis, d. 1707—with many Jansenlsts of the Port-Royal, who opposed the Jesuits: as, Ant. Amauld, d. 1694—Blaise Pascal, <1.1662—Nicole, A. 1605, who were also mystics—and many others.
Baruch Spinoza, a Jew, 1632-77, founder of a new system of Pantheism:
not material, like the Eleatic, but formal; embracing and illustrating a noble idea of the divinity, as the primal cause of Being—his leading principle is: all that is, is in God, as the only substance.
Nicole Malebranche, 1638-1715:
the greatest metaphysician that France has prodneed—Improved the ideas of Descartes, but mixed up with them some tenets of his own, inclining to mysticism—Simon Foucher, opposed this system by one of Scepticism—Mich. Ang. Fardella, d. 1718, followed Malebranche.
Supernatural ists and Mystics of this Period:
Englishmen: Theoph. Gale, 1628-77, in his Court of the Gentiles—Balph Cudworth, 1617-88, in his Intellectual System —and Henry More, 1614-87, in his Opera Philosoph.; all three Platonists, defended revelation: while Sam. Parker, d. 1688, wrote against the atomic theory of Descartes, and Joseph GlanoUu, d. 1680, against his dogmatism—in his remarks on causation he forestalled Home.
Progress of Scepticism in England and France, particularly by the sensualism of
John Xocke, 1632-1704—
“ Essay on the Human Understanding,” in which he combats the theory of Innate ideas, and proves that all our notions are acquired by experience : the only sources of knowledge being the senses and reflection—J. le Clerc, d. 1736, and G. J. S. Gravesande, embraced bis opinions, which spread very widely.
i, d. 1724, Religion of Nature—Sam. Clarke, d. 1729—W. King, Origin of Evil, 1702—John Bay, d. 1705— Will. Der-ham, d. 1735.
Idealist: Will. Berkelby, bp. of Cloync, d. 1753.
French Moral Philosophers:
Francois due de la Bochefoueauld, d. 1680, self-love the motive to action—De la Bruy ere, d. 1696— Mandeville, d. 1733, Fable of the Bees, argued that private vices were public benefits, thereby confounding all distinction of vice and virtue.
Sceptics : Pierre Bayle, 1647-1706.
He attacked the errors, superstition, and inlolerance of every system—he was preceded by P. Dan. JIuett, 1630-1721, who, like Bayle, defended scepticism for its own sake—and by Bossuet, 1617-1704, and Nicole, who, with many others, employed it as a means of restoring Protestants to the Catholic chnrch by setting forth the fallibility of human reason.
Gottfried W. Leibnitz, 1646-1716, the greatest man of his age, founded a new eclectic school in Germany :
Followers: C. Wolf, 1679-1754, the founder of dogmatism in modern philosophy, and the first philosopher who sketched out a complete encyclopedia of the philosophical sciences—J. F. Buddeeus, d. 1729—M. G. Hansch, d. 1752—A. G. Bavmgar-ten, d. 1762—Moses Mendelssohn, d. 1786—Platner, d. 1818. Contemporaries: E. W. von Tschimhausen,A. 1708—Ch. Thomasius, d. 1728. Eclectics, opponents of Wolf: And. Budiger, d. 1731—Chr. Aug. Crussius, d. 1775.
The system qf Leibnitz and Wolf becomes widely disseminated.
Progress of Philosophy in England :
David Hume, (the celebrated sceptic,) 1711-76, the most acute and profound of tne opponents of Revelation.
He was opposed by the celebrated Scotch philosopher Thomas Beid, 1704-96—James Beattie, 1735-1803—James Oswald, fl. 1766.
Contemporaries : David Hartley, d. 1757—Joseph Priestley, 1733-1804—A br. Tucker—Rich. Price, 1723-91—Henry Home, (Lord Karnes,) 1752-82— Adam Ferguson, 1724-1816—Adam Smith, 1723-90. Moralists: Joseph Addison, d. 1719, Spectator, etc. — Thomas Hutcheson, d. 1747, profess, at Glasgow, a System of Moral Philosophy—Saintjohn, Lord Bolingbroke, d. 1751—Stanhope, Lord Chesterfield, Letters to his Son, d. 1773—Steele,	Pope, etc.
English Philologists: James Harris, 1709-80, Hermes, etc.—Lord Monboddo,A. 1799, AncientMeta-physics, On the Origin of Language.
French Empirical School:
Followers of Locke: Charles Battcux, d. 1780 —Et. B. Condillac, d. 1780—Charles Bonnet, d. 1793—Cl. Ad. Helvetius, 1771.
The celebrated System of Nature, 1770, (undisguised atheism and fatalism,) by Baron von Holbach, d. 1789—J. B. Robinet, b. 1723.
The French Encyclopedists:
Denys Diderot, 1713—84—D'Alembert, 1717-83, aided by the popular writings of Voltaire, d. 1778, J. J. Rousseau, d. 1778, and others, reject Revelation ; confound man with nature: pure atheism. German Eclectics: mostly practical moral writers, opposed to the French sceptics:
H. S. Beimarvs, d. 1765—Bulger, d. 1770— Basedow, d. 1790— Lambert, A. \m--Lessing, the great critic,,d. 1781—Abbot, d. 1760— Eberhard, d. 1809— Garre, d. 1708—d. 1708 —Herder, d. 1803, his celebrated Reflections on the Philosophy and History of Humanity.
Physics.
Period of Descartes' and Newton's discoveries.
Rene Descartes, d. 1650,
held to the system of Copernicus, but by his atomic-mechanical discoveries laid the foundation for those of
Xsaao Newton, 1642-1727,
the founder of the modem system of astronomy and physics.
His Principia, 1687; his Solar System; Laws ofthe Gravitation of Heavedly Bodies ; bis Optics f Theory of Light and Colours Fluxions, etc.
Institutions for the promotion of natural science in land, France, etc.
1660 Foundation of the Royal Society of London. 1666 Academie des Sciences at Paris — observatory at Paris, 1667—at Greenwich,
1671.
1681 Museum for ^Natural Histoiy, London — Jar din des Plantes at Paris.
Mathematicians and Astronomers of the last half of the 17/A Century:
English: Wallis, prof, at Oxford, d. 1703—Hook, 1703, the principal compiler of the Pbilosopn. Transactions— John Harris, d. 1710, compiles the first dictionary of arts and sciences.
Italians: Borclli, 1679—Grimaldi, 1603—Riccioli, d. 1671.
French: Gassendi, d. 1655— Cassini, d. 1712, improves maps and
In Germany: Leibnitz founds the Arad, of Sciences at Berlin — J. Bernoulli, d. 1748.
Naturalists, Chemists, etc., of the last half of the 17th Century:
English: Thos. Sydenham, phys., d. 1689—Sir Robt. Boyle, 1627-91 —John Ray, d. 1705—Sir Hans Sloane, 1660-1752—Stcph. Hales, d. 1761—D. F. Tonrnefort.d. 1708.
Germany: Otto von Guericke, d. 1686, inventer of the air-pump and electrical machine—Sturm, d. 1703— Becher, d. 1685—Glauber, d.1670.
Dutch: Huygens, d. 1695, pendulums — Sylvius, d.
1672.
French: Marriotte,d. 1684— Picard, d. 1684.
Italian: Al. Galvani, galvanism, d. 1791.
Mathematicians and Astronomers of the 18/A Century: English: the three celebrated
Iirofessors at Greenwich, ’lamstead, d. 1720, his Atlas Celest., Halley, d. 1742, discovers the irregularity of the magnet needle, the course of comets, and improves the use of logarithms— Bradley, d. 1762-Will. Herschell, 1740-1822.
1757 Dollond's achromatic telescope.
Germany: Leon. Euler,d. 1783—Mayer, d. 1762. French : Le Monnier, d.
1 799-La la n de, 1732-1807.
Naturalists, Physicians, etc. of the 18 th Century:
Benj. Franklin, of Boston, U. S., d. 1790.
Germany : Lcuwenhoek, d. 1723, inventer of the microscope — Muschenbrock, d. 1761—Gravesund, d. 1742 - Fahrenheit, d. 1740, quicksilver thermometer—Reaumur, d. 1757, thermometer— G. E. Stahl, 1659-1733— Ant. Mesmer, d. 1815, animal magnetism.
Botanists:
Carl. v. Linnaeus, 1707-78,
founder of a new system of Botany.
Le Clero, oount BaJFon,
1707-88, the great naturalist. Abr. Gotti. Werner, 1750-1817, celebrated mineralogist.
Hutton, professor at Edinb.
Physiologists:
Haller, of Bern, d. 1777— Bonnet, d. 1793— Blumen-bach—Spallanzani, (Italian,) d. 1799.
History.
Architecture and Sculpture.
English Historians—under Cromwell and the Stuarts. Whitelock’s Memorials of English affairs from Charles I. to the Restoration.
Ed. Hyde, Lord Clarendon, d. 1674, History of the Grand Rebellion.
Lucy Hutchinson, Memoirs of Col. Hutchinson.
Edm. Ludlow's, d. 1693, Memoirs. Thomas May, d. 1652, Hist, of the Long. Pari.
Bp. Burnet, d. 1715, Memoirs of his Own Times, 1660-1713; History of the Reformation.
Sir William Temple's, d. 1700, Memoirs.
Histories of England—bv Robert Brady, d. 1700— James Tyrrel, d. 1718— White Rennet, d. 1728 — Thomas Carte, 1686-1754. Collections; Roger Twysden, d. 1672, “Hist. Anglican® Scriptores decern”—Thos. Gale, d. 1702, Rerum Anglican. Script. Vet.—John Fell— Thos. Rymer, d. 1713— Will. Nicholson, d. 1727.
Ancient and Modem Universal History,
Lond. 1736-65, 20 vols. folio, by Swinton, Campbell, Bowycr, and others—abridged by Guthrie and Gray, 1764.	'
Biographical Writers: Isaac Walton, d. 1683, Lives of Hooker, Donne, and Wotton, etc.—Thos. Fuller, d. 1661, Worthies of Enlgand, and Church Hist.— Ed. Stanley, d. 1678, Lives of Philos.—Anthony d Wood, d. 1695, Athens Oxon. (new edit, improved by Bliss)—J. Strype, 1737, Ecclesiastical Hist, and Memorials— William Oldys, d. 1761, British Bibliographer.
Antiquities : Will. Somner,d. 1669, Antiq. of Canterbury, and Saxon Dictionary—ITi//. Dagdalc, 1686, Mon-asticon Ang., and many other works— Thos. Tanner, d. 1735, Bibl. Bril. Hibem.—Thos. Heame, 1678-1735, numerous works in histoiy and antiq. -—Nath. Hook,d.1764,Hist.of Rome. Chronologists : Simson—Usher.
French Historians.
Bossuet, d. 1704—Herbelot, d. 1695— Mezeruy, d. 1683—Daniel, d. 1728 Rapin, d. 1725; Hist, of England, very impartial—Adbe Flettry, 1723, Church History—Basnage, d. 1723— Abbe St. Real, 1692— Vertot, d. 1735 —Card. Retz, d. 1679, Memoirs.
Italian Historians.
Abbe Siri, d. 1685—Napi, d. 1678— Leti, d. 1701—Giannone, d. 1758.
Spanish.
Solis, A. 1686, Hist, of the Conquest of Mexico—Ferreras, d. 1735.
Period from the time of Voltaire.
Introduction of the popular philosophic style, which has a vast influence. Voltaire’s (d. 1778) Esprit des Nations formed an epoch, from being the first work of the kind, agreeable, not only to the learned
classes, but to the great body of readers.
The historical art carried to the highest perfection by Gibbon, and Bobertson.
David Hume, d. 1776—Edward Gibbon, 1738-94—William Robertson, 1721-93.
Tobias Smollett, 1720-71—Robert Henry, d. 1790, Hist, of Great Britain—Bryan Edwards, d. 1800, History of the Brit. Colonies in the West Indies—Adam Ferguson, d. 1816, Hist, of Rome; Essays on Civil Society: one of the firet philosophical writers on civilisation— William Milford, d. 1831, Hist, of Greece—John Gillies, d. 1836, Hist, of Greece, and Hist, of the World—James Grainger, d. 1776, Biog. Hist, of England—Jos. Strutt, 1749-1802, Antiquities and History—John Blair, d. 1797, Chronology—James Playfair, Chronol. and Geog.— Will. Playfair, d. 1823, British Family Antiquity, 9 vols. folio, 1809.
Collections: Jos.Sparke,Hiat. Anglia Script. Varii, 1723—-John, Lord Somers, d.1716, collection of scarce and valuable tracts, 16 vols. 4to. 1748-52—The Har-leian Miscellany, 8 vols. 4to. 1744. Dodsley's Annual Register, began 1758.
French Historians: Charles Rollin, d. 1741, his Ancient and Roman Histories are acknowledged masterpieces— Barthelemy,A. 1795,le Jeune Anacharais —Velly, d. 1759—Henault, d. 1770— Raynal, d. 1796, Hist, of the Two Indies Dnhalde, 1743, of China—De Guignes, d. 1800, of the Huns—Art de Verifier les Dates, 1750—D'Anville, Ant. Geog., 1768—Montesquieu—Mably.
Italian Writers: Muratori, d. 1750, Annali d’ltalii—Denina, d. 1813,
Physicians:
E. Stahl, 1708— Fred. Hof Revoluzioni d’ltaUA mu^prof. at Halit5,d..1742 lGernan' Writers: Schmauss, d.
H. Hoerhaave, d. 1738 i 1757^ introd. to State sciences—Achen-Tissot,d. 1797—J. Brown, wa//5 a. 1772—Just. Moser, d. 1794— London, d. 1788.	| Schroch, d. 1808, Church History.
IV. Period—Flourishing Period of French Architecture.
Francois Mansart, d. 1666.
Jules Hardouln Mansart, 1647-1708—the designer of nearly all the buildings
nnder Louis XIV.: ■*— ----!*~— —-
Versailles—des des Victoires.
Chas. Perrault, d. 1888, facade of the Louvre, etc. —La Vau, d. 1870—Fr. Blondbl, 1688, arch of Port St. Deny—the Gabriels, d. 1742, 1782, Palais BourboD, etc.—J. G. Soufflot, d. 1781, Pantheon—Antoine, d. 1801, Palais de Justice— Gondouin, d. 1818, Ecole de Medecio, etc. Sculptors : Sarazin, d. 1668—F. and M. An-ouier, d. 1669 and 1680—
Branoola Olrardon, 1628-1715: the most celebrated sculptor of this period; statu of Lonis XIV. on horseback in the Place Ven-dome, etc. fonnder of the Academy of Sculpture. Pierre Puget, 1622-06, the French Mich. Angelo —the brothers Bach, and Casp. Marst, 1674 and 1661—Desjardins, d. 1694^Lbhamb*rt, d. 1670—Lb Honcre, 1690, Lecomtb, d. 1690— Le Gtos, 1710, artists at Versailles.
Ant. Coyscvox, d. 1720—the brothers Nfc. and G. Cousten, d. 1733 and 1746— Bouchardon, 1762-Lamb. Adam, d. 1759— Pigallc, d. 1785—Falconet, d. 1701.
Italian Architects.
G. L. Bernini, d. 1680,also famous as a sculptor— F. Borromini,d. 1667—F. Ivara, d. 1735—Van-vitbli.i, 1773, palace ofCaseria near Capua, of tbe finest works in Ibe ancient style.
Theatres of Sti Carlo at Naples, 1737—the Scala at Milan, 1778.
Sculptors: splendid and original artist-1728— Ano. Rossi, d. 1715, of Genoa—Zumbo of Syracuse, d. 1701—Tubi, d. 1700, of Rome.
English Architects.
> Jones, d.
_____Buckingham palace,
Newcastle house, Line. Inn, Coomb abbey, etc. Christopher Wren, 1632-1723,
the greatest architect of England, prof, of astron. at Oxford ; ills great work, St. Paol's, Lond., is one of the finest specimens of modern times; St. Stephen’s chnrch, Walbrook, modern part ' Hampton conrt, Greenwich hospital, Chela College, the Theatre and Ashmolean Mnsenm Oxford, Libr. of Trin. Coll., Camb., etc.
Nic. Hawksmoor, his pupil, d. 1756, ! George’s, Bloomsbury; New qnad. All Souls’, Queen’s, and New Coll., Oxford.
Sir John Vanbrugh, 1672-1726, architect and 1 dramatist; chief works : Blenheim, Castle Howard, Clarendon at Oxford, etc.
James Gibbs, d. 1754, Chnrch of St. Martin in the Fields; Radclifle’s Library, Oxford; Senate House, Cambridge, etc.
Aldrich, d. 1710, All Saints’ chnrch, Peckwater, Oxford—Dr. Georgs Clarke, d. 1736, Christ-Chorch library, Oxford, etc.—Colin Campbell, d. 1734, his Vitruvius Britarmicus, 3 vols. folio— Giacomo Leoki, d. 1746, his fine edit, of Palladio, 1742—Henry Hbrbert, Earl op Prmb., d. 1751—Loro Burlington, d. 1753—Will. Kent, d. 1748, painter, arch., and father of modern gardening, Holkham Honsc, Norfolk.
The science languishes for some time in England.
Sir William Chambers, 1775, anlhor of a Treatise on Civil architecture, Somerset Place—Sir N. Holland—George Dance, 1740, Newgate—Sir John Soane, Bank of England, Privy Conncil Office, State Paper Office—Jas. Wyatt, Font-hill Abbey, additions to Windsor Castle—Sir Jeffrey Wtatville, many alterations and additions to Windsor Castle—Sir R. Smlrke, University Club House, United Service Club House, part of the British Mnsenm—John Rennie,engineer, Waterloo and London bridges—J. Britton’s Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 1807-14, 4 vols. 4to., and other works.
Statuaries, Sculptors, etc.
Gabriel Cibber, 1630-1700, figures of Melancholy and Madness for, Bedlam—John Bushnel, a. 1701—Grinling Gibbons, d. 1721, atatne of Charles II. In the Royal Exchange, altarpiece for Trln. Coll. Oxford, etc.—Francis Bird, d. 1731—John Mich. Rtsbrach, d. 1770, first-rate sculptor, from Antwerp, of whom Pope says: Then marble, softened into life, grew wari And yielding metal flowed to human form.
L. F. Rocbilliac, of Lyons, d. 1762—Peter Scheemakers, and other foreigners, worked in England.
Joseph Wollekins, 1737-72.
John Bacon, 1740-99.
John Flaxman, d. 1816, celebrated for his sketches of ASschylus, Homer, Dante. Ellohard Westmacott, colossal atatne of Achilles in Hyde Park, the largest bronze figure of modern times; monument of Pitt; statues of Fox, Canning, etc.
Hon. A. S. Darner, 1749-1828.
T. X. Chan trey, the English Canova—E. A. Baily—J. Gibson—Ch. Rossi—and others.
E. and B. Wyon, medallists.
Spanish and Portuguese.
1715 The monastery of Mafra, called the wonder of Portugal—new palace in Madrid by Saccbetti, 1737—palace and gardens of Sl lldefonso under Philip V.: cost 45,000,000 piastres.
German.
Foundation of German country chateanx, upon the model of Versailles: Wilhelm’s coart near Cassel, by F. Gncmierl, d. 1714—the Belvedere in Vienna, 1716, by Yalma, completed 1750— Herrenhausen at Hanover, etc.
The Royal castle at Berlin by de Bodt, 1600—the Catholic church at Dresden by Getano Chiaveri, 1737-50.
In the North.
Royal palace at Stockholm, 1751—at Copenhagen, 1740—marble palace, etc. at Petersburg by Cath. II.
Museums founded—Antiquities.
1725 The Dresden Augusteums for tbe Chigl collection.
1731 The Farneainn collection in the Beal Museo Borbonico at Naples.
1734 New foundation of the Museo Capitolina at Rome by Clement XII.
1736 Excavation of the cities of Hercnlanenm and Pompeii—Mnsenm at Portlci— Hercnlanenm Acad. 1755.
1753 The British Museum, to which were added the Hamilton collection of Vases, 1772—the monuments of Phigalia, 1315—the Elgin marbles, 1816—the Egyptian sarcophagni of Alexandria,
Johann. J. Wlnokelmann, 1717-68,
his History of Ancient Art forms an epoch in the history and study of Archaeology.
1769 Foundation of the Museo Pio Clementiano
in the Vatican.
a
b
d
e
A. c. 1650 to 1839. MODERN CIVILISATION, SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE.	65
”1 POKTRY AND WORKS OF IMAGINATION.			Music.
British. The national poetry and drama of England is infected by French taste and style, introduced by the returning Royalists at the Restoration. The writers and wits oh the court of Charles 11.—Karl of Rochester, d. 1680—Karl of Roscommon—Earl of Dorset— Duke of Buckingham, &c. Charles Cotton, 1630-87—Sir John Denham, 1615-88. Sir William Davenant, 1605-68, poet, dramatist, and founder of the English opera. John Dryden, 1631-1701, poet, dramatist, critic, and miscellaneous writer—greatly improves English versification. Dramatists oh this Period:—Thomas Otway, 1651-81— Aphra Itehn, d. 1689—With. Lee, d. 1690—Thom. Farquhar, 1678-1707—S’ich. Rowe, 1673-1788— Mill. Wycherly, 1640- 1715—	John Vunhurgh, d. 1726—Susan Cenllivre,<l. 1723— Colley Cibber, 1671-1758—William Congreve, 1672-1729. Poets:—John Pomfrct, d. 1703—John Phillips, d. 1708— Thos. Parncl, d. 1717 — Matt. Prior, 1664-1721 —Thos. Creech, 1659 -1700—Dr. Isaac Watts, d. 1712—Thos. Durfey, d. 1724—Rich. Blackmore, d. 1729—Elijah Fenton, 1730. Daniel de Foe, d. 1731, ‘Robinson Crusoe,’ poems, novels, and miscellanies. Jonathan Swift, 1667-1745, poet, novelist, satirist, and political writer. Granville, d. 1735—Thos. Yalden, d. 1736—John Gay, d. 1732; also dramatist, ‘The Beggar's Opera’—Jos. Addison, d. 1719, ‘ Cato,’ &.c.—John Dennis, celebrated critic, 1657-1733. Alexander Pope, 1688-1746, the greatest of didactic poets: celebrated for his finished and brilliant versification. Contemporary Poets:—Thomas Ticket!, d. 1740—Ambrose Phillips, d. 1748—Hammond, d. 1742—Somerville, d. 1742 —	Savage, d. 1743—Wm. Broome, d. 1745 — Christopher Pitt, d. 1748—Gilbert West, d. 1755—Wdliam Shenstone, d. 1763—James Thomson, 1700—48—Edward Young, d. 1765 —David Mullet, d. 1765—William Collins, 1720-59—John Dyer, 1700-58— William Churchill, 1731-64—Mark A ken-side, d. 1770—Thomas Chatterton, 1752-70. Oliver Goldsmith, 1731-74, poet, dramatist, novelist, essayist, &c. Rich. Glover, 1712-85—Isaac Hawkins Browne, d. 1760— Christopher Smart, d. 1771—Thomas Gray, 1716-71—Dr. Armstrong, 1732-79—George Lord Lyttleton, d. 1773. ^illan Ramsay, d. 1743; Scotch pastoral, poet and song writer. Dramatists:—Samuel Foote, d. MU—David Garrick, 1716-	1779, the most celebrated of actors. Use and gTeat perfection of English novel writing Same. Richardson, 1689-1761—IIenry Fielding, 1707-54. Lawrence Sterne, 1713-68—Toiiias Smollett, 1720-71. Later Novelists :—Henry Brooke, 1706-83—Horace Walpole, d. 1797—John Moore, 1730-1802—Mrs. Raddiffe, d. 18 —Andrew Picken, d. 1833—Charlotte Smith, d. 1807. Bishop Percy's ‘ Reliqucs of Ancient English Poetry,’ 1764. Dr. Samuel Johnson, 1709-84, poet, moralist, critic, lexicographer, novelist, &c. IF. J. Mickle, d. 1788—William Mason, d. 1797—Thomas Tyrwhitt, d. 1786, critic—Sir IFm. Jones, d. 1794. Joseph Warton, 1745 1800, poet and critic. Thomas Warton, his brother, 1728-90, celebrated critic and poet—his ‘History of English Poetry,’ 1774-81, new and improved edition, 4 vols. 8vo., edited by Price. Robert Burns, 1759-96. James Macpherson, d. 1796, poems of Ossian—Blair, d. 18Q.0 —James Beattie, 1803. William Cowper, 1752-1800. Drama :—Commentaries on Shakspeare by George Stevens, d. 1796, Isaac Reed, d. 1807, and Edw. Malone, d. 1812. Revival of English Comedy i George Colman, the elder, d. 1794—Charles Macklin, d. 1794—Arthur Murphy, d. 1805. Richard Brinsley Sheridan, d. 1816. Henry Kelly—Thomas Holcroft, d. 1805. Richard Cumberland, d. 1811. George Colman the younger, d. 183-. Elizabeth Inchbald, novelist, d. 1821. Tragedians:—J.Home,A. 1808—Jephson, d. 183	William Muturin, d. 1824— M. G. Lewis, d. 1824, also novelist. The Kemble Family -.—John P. Kemble, d. 1825— Sarah Kemble {Mrs. Siddons), d. 1831—Charles Kemble—Fanny Kemble (Mrs. Butler), &c. Other Tragic Actors -.—Cooke—Kean—Miss O'Neill (now Lady Bechcr)—Young—Macready. Comedians :—Ellvtton—Mrs. Jordan—Farren—Matthews, —Liston— Vestris. Poets op the 19th Century -.—Henry Kirke White, d. 1806 —Mrs. Henry Tighe, d. 1810—John Keats, d. 1816—John Wolcot {Peter Pindar), d. 1819—Robert Bloomfield, d. 1823 —	Will. Coombe, d. 1823 (Dr. Syntax)—Reg. Ileber, d. 1826 —Rev. Wm. Crowe, d. 1829—Percy Bysshe Shelley, d. 1822—George Crabbe, d. 1832. Sir Walter Scott, 1751-1832. X.ord Byron, 1788-1824. William Gifford, 1755-1826, poet and critic; projector and editor of the ‘Quarterly Review’—Sam. Rogers, d. 18.32— William Solheby, d. 1834— Mrs. Barbauld—Mrs. C. Smith. S. T. Coleridge, 1772-1834, poet, philosopher,and theologian. Charles Lamb, d. 1834—James Montgomery, d. 183	James Hogg, d. 1835—Miss London, {L. E. L.), d. 1838—Jos. Ritson, d. 1803—.SYr Egerton Brydges, d. 183—, poet, critic, essayist, ‘ The Censura Literaria,’ ‘liestituta,’‘ Bibliographer.’ Celebrated living Poets :—Wordsworth, b. 1770— Leigh Hunt—Southey, b. 1774, and miscellaneous writer— John IFiAon, editor of ‘Blackwood’s Mag.’— Campbell, b. 1777—I. Moore, b. 1780—Milman, also historian, dramatist, and miscellaneous writer—Keble, ‘ The Christian Y ear '—Mrs. Hemans—Proctor {Barry Cornwall) —	William Lisle Bowles—Mitford, poet and critic—George Croly—Bernard Barton—The Smiths, ‘ Rejected Addresses.’ Celebrated living Novelists:—Lady Morgan—Jane and Anna Maria Porter—Mrs. Opie. Sir Edward Bytton Bulwer, b. 1803, poet, dramatist, and miscellaneous writer. Morier—Theod. Hook—Trelawney—Maria Edgeworth—Mrs. a ore	Ward—Miss A listen—Mrs. Trollope—Edw. Dickens —Mrs. Shelley—Galt, d. 1839. In TnE United States— J. Fennemore Cooper—Washington living. Celebrated living Dramatists:— Reynolds — Knowles — Talfourd—Joanna Baillic—Mary Russell Mitford. Hindu Theatre, translated by Horace Dayman Wilson. J. Payne Collier, ‘ History of English Dramatic Poetry.’ Rev. Alex. Dyce, critic; editor of Pcele, Greene, Webster, Shirley, &c.	Italians. Italian Poets of the 1 Kill Century, after the French School. A post. Zeno, d. 1750, melo-drame. Pietro Metastasio, 1698-1782, founder of the Italian opera. Gigli, (1. 1721 —Fagiulo, <1. 1742— and Chiari, d. 1787 — dramatic poets of llic French school. Carlo Goldoni, 1707-93, excellent comedies. Carlo Gozzi, 1718-1802, dramatic fairy tales. Scipio Maffei, d. 1755, Mcropc. Vittorio Alfieri, 1749-1803, classical tragedies. Giov. Pindemonti, d. 1812- 4/ess. Pepoli, d. 1700 — fine. Monti, tragedians in the style of Altieri. Xiccolo Fortiguerra, d. 1735, ‘ Ricciardctto’—Prugoni, d. 1708, distinguished lyric. Celebrated Poets of the 19th Century:—Ugo Foscolo, d. 1827—Fin. Monti, d. 1828—A less. Manzoni, poet and novelist—Niccolini, dramatic poet, ‘Ant. Foscarini,’ 1827. Silvio Pellico, ‘I miei Pri-gioni,’ &c. Spanish. French taste begins to prevail. 1714 Academy for the improvement of the Spanish language. Ign. de Luzon, 1702-54, imitates Boileau. Dramatists : — Montiano y Luyando,d. 1750—Nic. Fern, de Moratin, d. 1780—Ramon de la Cruzycano, d. 1795. Yriarte, d. 1794, fables. Vincente Garcia de Ui Huerta, d. 1797, restores the ancient national style. Portuguese. — Anion. Jose, burnt 1745, introduced the Italian opera. F. X. de Meneses, d. 1744, introd. the French style. Garfao, d. 1772, tho Portuguese Horace. Count Vimiero, d. 1788, dramatist. Celebrated Spanish Poets OP THE PRESENT CENTURY : — Leand. Fernand. Moratin, 1758- 1828,	the Spanish Molicre. Melendez Valdez, d. 1817, beautiful lyric poet. Cienfuegos,d. 1812. Xoronna, d. 1816. Tiie latest are:—The patriotic Quintana — Arriaza —Martinez de la Rosa, kc. Sundry Nations. Dutch.—Ant. v. der Goes, d. 1684 —Rotgans, d. 1710 — Pool, 1733 —Hoogvliet, d. 1763—Mr. and Mrs. Van Winter reform the tragic drama, as Pet. Langendyk, d. 1756, docs comedy. Revival of the ancient national tone, a consequence of the connections with the English. Bellamy, d. 1786—Feith, d. 1824—Bilderdyk, 1756-1831, the most splendid and gifted Dutch poet of this period. Poets of the 19tii Century:— He Inters, d. 1813—Tollens, 1834—Loots—Kinker. Danes.—Ludw. von Ilolberg, 1684-1754, the father of Danish literature, and creator of the national drama. Braumatm Tallin, d. 1765, poet in the French style. John Etcald, d. 1781, tragedian— Wessel, d. 1783, talcs. Op the 19tii Century :—Jens Bagyesen, d. 1826—Ad. Oeh-lenschlaeger, novelist, poet, &c. Swedes.—Olof v. Dalin, 1708-63, introduces French taste, poet and historian—his followers : iMlljestraele, d. 1806 — Creutz, d. 1785 — Gyllenborg, d. 1808 — Kell-qren, d. 1795 — Lidner, d. 1793—Bellmann, d. 1795. Op the 19tii century:—Amadeus Atterbom, b. 1790, romance— Tegner, b. 1782— C. J. Dahlgren, b. 1792, the darling poet of Sweden, &c. Poles.—Boguslawsky, creator of the Polish drama. Krasicki, d. 1801, the prince of Polish poets, called the Polish Voltaire. Of the 19tii Century:—Jul. Lrrs. Xiemcewicz, b. 1767, statesman, poet, historian, novelist— Ad. Mickiewicz, b. 1798, epic poet, Ac. Hungary and Russia begin to have their poets, tyc. HUNGARIA xs.—A lx. Kisfaludy, d. 1809—Carl. Kisf, his brother, b. 1796—Count Mailath, historian, novelist, &c. Russians.—Nik. Karamsin, d. 1826, historian, novelist, &c.; the greatest original prose writer of Russia—Thadd. Bulgarin, b, 1789, novelist.	French. Poets under Louis XIV. XV. XVI. Flourishing period of the French Drama, founded upon the classic model — rigid adherence to the unities. Peter Corneille, 1606-84. His followers :—Thom. Corneille, his brother, cl. 1729— Antoine de la Fosse, d. 1708. Jean Baclne, 1639-99. Jean Baptiste Mollere, 1622-73. J. F. Reynard, 1647-1709, his follower. Phil. Quinault, 1634-88, French operas. Rise of French Comic Operas and Vaud evilles. Bene le Sage, 1668-1747, ‘ Gil Bias,’ and other romances and poems. Romances of this Period:—Claprenede, d. 1663, Cassendre, Cleopatra, Pharamond. De la Fayette, d. 1693—Scarron, d. 1660—Ch. Perrault, d. 1703—Hamilton, d. 1720, kc. Jean De Lafontaine, 1621-94, Contes et Fables. Nicolas Boileau, 1636-1711. Fenelon, 1651-1715, moral epic, ‘ Telemachus.’ Voltaire, 1694-1778—Boussean, 1712-78. Diderot, 1713-84. Period immediately preceding the Revolution— novels and romances prevail, with a close adherence to nature. Dramatists:—Crcbillon, 1674-1764—De la Chaussec, 1691-1754—Destouches, 1680* 17 54—Beaumarchais, 1732-99. Shakspeare brought upon the French stage by Ducts, d. 1816. Romance Writers:—Prevosl, 1697-1763, in the style of Richardson—Marmontel, 1723-99—Florian, 1755-94—Crebillon fils, 1707-77—De la Bretonne, 1734-1806—iAtuvet, 1764-97, ‘ Faublas’—Mercier, d. 1814 —St. Pierre, d. 1814. Contemporary Lyrics:—FonteneUe, d. 1757, aged 100—De la Motte, d. 1731—J. Baptiste Rousseau, d. 1741—Grecourt, d. 1743—Gresset, 1777—Dorat, 1734-80—DelUle, 1738-1813. Period of the Revolution, Restoration, §*c. Chateaubriand, b. 1769—Mad. de Stael, 1768-1817— Victor Hugo, b. 1002, Lyrics:—Lamartine, b. 1799—Beranger, b. 1780— liarthelmy—Mery — Viennet—Baour-lorm km—Bar-bier. Dramatists :—Chenier, 1>. 1764—Arnault, b. 1766— Lemercier, b. 1770—Raynouard, b. 1761—Jouy, b. 1769—Andrieuz, b. 1759. Charles Delavigne, b. 1794—Merimce, b. 1800—Vitct —Dumas—the fruitful Scribe, b. 1791, &c. Talma, 1763-1826, the great tragedian, and reformer of the French stage. Novki.ists :— I)’Arlincourt — Salvandy—Ch. Xodier—Jules Janin, b. 1804—De Lacroix—Alf. de Vigny— Balzac— Edgar Quinet—Eug. Sue—Mich. Raymond— Delatouche— Mrrcille—Paul de Koch—Pigault Lebrun, Ac. The Female Writers:—Mad. Genlis—Cottin—Junot, 4c- German. French taste predominates. Cani/z, 1654-99—Gottsched, 1700-66. Romance Writers:—Buchholz,d. 1671—Ant. Ulrich, d. 1714—Ans. von Ziegler, d. 1697. J. E. Schlegcl, d. 1749, dramatist. Weisse, d. 1804, farces. Chr. F. Gellert, 1715-69, fables, Ac. Rivalry of Gottsched, as champion of the French style, with Bodmer, of Zurich, d. 1783, a follower of the English. Regeneration of German literature by the six great writers and their followers. 1. Blopstock, 1724-1803. His Followers:—Kretschmann, d. 1809 — Gersten-berg, d. 1823—Kleist, d. 1759—Gleim, d. 1803— Schubart, d. 1791—Kosegarten, d. 1818—Stolberg, d. 1819—J. H. Voss, d. 1826—Jacobi, d. 1814—Burger, d. 1794—Matthison, 1831, &c. 2. Christ. M. Wleland, 1733-1813. Thummel, d. 1817—Blumauer, d. 1798—A. Muller, d. 1807, kc. 3.	Gotth. Eph. Ziesslng, 1729-81, the proper founder of modem German orig. literature. 4.	Joh. Gottf. Herder, 1744-1803. 5. Goethe, 1748-1832. 6. Fred, von Schiller, 1759-1805, dramatist, poet, Ac. During this period Germany abounded in dramatic and romance writers. Eckhof, d. 1774, the first celebrated dramatist of the German stage. A. W. Iffland, 1756-1814. Kotzebue, 1761-1819. Hermes, d. 1821, the first German novelist of the school of Richardson. Miller, d. 1814—J. G. Muller, d. 1828— Klinger, b. 1753—Ft. Muller, d. 182.5—La Fontaine, d. 1831— Pestalozzi, d. 1827, the celebrated Swiss novelist. Later Writers -.—Lud. Tieck,b. 1773, poet, novelist, and miscellaneous writer—translator of Shakspeare. Ludw. Uhland, b. 1787, founder of the later Swabian school of ballad romances. Hein. Heyne, b. 1797, highly-gifted poet and prose writer. Dramatists:—Zach. Werner, 1768-1823—Kleist, of Frankfort, d. 1011—Grabbe, b. 1801, and numerous others. Jean Paul Fr. Richter, 1763-1825, humorous and original novelist. Other Novelists :—Xovalis {Fred, von Hardcnberg), 1772-1801—E. Wagner, d. 1812-A’. Th. W. Hoffmann, d. 1022— Van der Velde, d. 1024—Arnim, d. 1831—Chamisso, b. 1781 (Peter Schlcmihl)—Fou-que, b. 1777, ‘ Undine,’and numerous others. The great Critics :—The brothers Aug. Will, and Fred. Bchlegel, b. 1767 and 1772. Wolfg. Menzel, b. 1798. Ludwig Borne, b. 1784, the German Voltaire. Among the celebrated writers of the present day are— Spindler—Leop. Schefer— Witzleben—Blumenhagen — Wachsmann—Prince Puckler, <£e. Ladies :—C. Pichlcr—F. Brunn—Schopenhauer, $c.	France.—First French opera by Chambert, 1645. G. Batt, Bully, 1633-87, from Florence, founder of French opera music, introduces wind instruments into the orchestra. Italy.—An. Scarlatti, 1658-1728, of Naples, the first harp plaver—109 operas. Arch. Corelli, 1653-1713, cclubnitcd violinist mill composer of Uome. Marcello, 1686-1739, at Venice. Germany.—Famous for its organists, and composers of church music. Fuoiierger, d. 1695 —Theile, d. 1725 — J. Ch. Bach, 1643-1703—Zachau, teacher of Handel. R. Keiser, 1673-1739, founder of the German opera. England.—Masques, with music, much in vogue, patronised by Queen Henrietta. Henry Lawes, d. 1662, much celebrated in his time; music to ‘ Comus,’ ‘ Ariadne,’ Ac. John Playford, 1613-1693—Tho. Wancicke, song in 40 parts. Composers during the reigns of Charles and James II.— Matt. Lock, music to ‘ Macbeth,’ 1674—John Blow, Michael Hue, d. 1685, both composers of church music, the latter of ‘ Old Charon.’ Thomas Mace, ‘ Music’s Monument,’ 1676. Xic. Mattheis, Italian, and famous violinist, resides in England ; his ‘ Ayres for the Violin.’ French operas introduced 1674—Italian, 1C98. Purcel, 1658-1695, founder of the English school; church music and songs—one of the greatest musicians of his time. English Composers of sacred music after Purcel:— Dr. J. Clarke, d. 1707—Dr. Hen. Aldrich, dean of Christ Church, Oxon, d. 1710; ‘Hark the Bonny Christ Church Bells,’ and other rounds and catches -Dr. W. Croft, d. 1727-./. Weldon, d. 1736-Dr. M. Greene, d. 1755. 1690 The clarionet invented by Denner. 1707 Pianoforte, by Schroeder. Silbermann, d. 1756, famous organ builder. Flourishing Period of the Neapolitan School. Nic. Porpora, d. 1767—Leo. ha Vinci, d. 1732. Fr. Durante, 1693-1755, one of the finest composers of church music. Boon. Beo, 1701-431 spreads the fame of Neapolitan school overall Europe. G. B. Pergolesi, 1707-39 — Jomelli, 1714-74— J. B. Martini, Roman school, 1706-84. Venetians:—Galupit, d. 1785—Tartini, d. 1770, famous violinist. The Italian Coruerratiori, or Public Singing Schools of the ITth and IS th Centuries—the famous prima donna, Faustina—Fari.nei.li, celebrated singer. G. F. Handel, 1684-1759, In England i founder of modem protestant church music. German:—J. Beb. Bach, 1685-1750, wonderful organist and composer—the Homer of music. His three sons, Friedcinann, Emanuel, and John Christian, all celebrated—tbc latter organist to Queen of England, d. 1/82. C. II. Graun, d. 1759—J. A. Hasse, d. 1783—and many others flourished nt this period. France:—J. P. Rameau, d. 1764, known by his theory of fundamental bass—J. J. Rousseau, d. 1778, the celebrated philosopher of Geneva. P. A, Moxsigny, 1729-1817, founder of the French Opera Comique. Christ. Gluck, 1714-87, founder of the modern opera-dramatic music, which foe carries to great perfection—his Iphigenia was given 170 times in Nic/ piccini, 1728-1800 —Sacchini, d. 1786 — A. E. Gretry, 1741-1813, Operas. In Spain:—Boccherini, d. 1805, the greatest instrumental composer of Spain—V. Martini, fl. 1782. Period of the Vienna School, and perfection of instrumental music, symphonies, quartets, frc. Joseph Hkydn, 1733-1809. Mozart, 1756-91 — Beethoven, 1772-1807. Aldrechtsberger, d. 1809, the best contmpointist of modem times, teacher of Beethoven, and others. F. Mendelssohn Bartholdy, b. 1809. German Ballad Writers from 1780:—Schulze, d. 1800—Reichard, d. 1814—Zumsteeg, d. 1802—■ Ilimmel, d. VbXi—Kreuzer, b. 1790. German Opera Writers:—Dittersdorf,d. 1799, founder of the Gemian comic opera—Muller— Winter, d. 1825—Weigl, b. 1766. Spohr, b. 1783—Weber, d. 1826. Meyerbeer, b. 1791, German church music and oratorios:—Xau-man, d. 1801—Schuster, d. 1812—Schicht—Vogler— Stadler—Neukomm, b. 1778—Schneider—Klein. The symphonies of Pleyel, b. 1757—Romberg, d. 1821—Ries, b. 1784—Fesca, d. 1826—Kalliwoda. The pianoforte music of Hummel, Moschelles, Kalkbren.ver—Hkrz—Pixis. Singers : — Sonntag — Schcchner — Schroeder-Devrient. Waltzes, by Strauss and Lanncr of Vienna. Italian:—Pet. Guglielmi, d. 1804—Gns. Sarti, d. 1802—Paisiello, d. 1816, favourite composer of Napoleon—Saliari, d. 1825—N. Zingarelli, d. 1834 — Cimarosa, d. 1801—Cherubini — Paer—S PONT IN i—Fiora v anti—Mosca, &c. G. Rossini, b. 1792. Pacini — Bellini, b. 1808 — Mercandante — Donizetti, &c. The wonderfhl violinist Paganini. French:—Mehul, d. 1018 — Catel, b. 1773— Roieldictt, d. 1034—F. Auber, b. 1780. ‘ Tbc Marseilloisc,’ by Rouget de Lisle, 1792—Concerts of Fctis at Paris. England—\9th Century. Composers for the stage: — Reeve—Braliam — Bishop—Barnett—Balfe—Hullah —Rooke—Loder. F ianists: — Clcmenti — John Cramer — Field — Mrs. Anderson—Neate—Potter—Bennet. Organists:—Crotch — Attwood— Horsley—Adams —the two Elveys of Oxford and Windsor, &c. Mori and Blagrove, violinists—Lindley, violincello— Dragonetti—Willman—Macintosh—Harper, &c. Institutions:—Concert of Ancient Music, founded 1776—Philharmonic Society, 1813, the first orchestra in Europe	Royal Academy of Music, 1823— Vocal Society, 1832—Soc. of Brit. Musicians, 1834. Singers: — Inclcdon — Braham — Bellamy — Vaughan — Knyvctt —Taylor— Sapio—Phillips— Billington—Stephens—Fanny Avton—Mrs. Knyvctt—Clara Novello—Mr. and Mrs. Wood—Wilson.
G6 Table xxii.	SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES OF	a. c. 1792 to ms.
Sixth Periodi (the Revolutionary) continued.
French Revolution continued—overthrow of Robespierre, 1794—government of the Executive Directory, 1796-99—Napoleon First Consul, 1799—Municipalities abolished—system of centralisation, and creation of.prefccts.—Buonaparte becomes Consul for life, 1802, with almost royal authority —Emperor, 1804—and King of Rome, 1803.
Irish Rebellion.
Poland destroyed by the third partition.
1800 Union of England and Ireland, upon the suppression of the Irish Rebellion. 1805 Fox’s administration in England.
1806 Dissolution of the German Bmplre— OOVnoUATIOV OF THB RHXNB—Napoleon Protestor.
Napoleon kingdom of Napt ft and Holland—1807 of Westphalia—of the duchy of Warsaw. Buonaparte dissolves the tribunate, the last remnant of the democratic principle in France. 18J6 Establishes a new hereditary nobility and primogeniture, but without rights or privileges as regards taxation, legislation, military service, or offices.
1808	Napoleon kingdom of Spain:
abolition of feudal privileges—Spain the onl French dominion.
1809	Ministry of Mettemich in Austria.
New constitution of Sweden: the sovereignty divided between the king and states—crown hereditary in the male line—freedom of the press.
1810	Complete development of the despotic government of Napoleon in France :
arbitrary imprisonments restored by his special and prevotal judgments—a rigid censorship of the press.
New organisation of the government in Prussia : the cabinet and state council— ministry of Hardenberg till 1822.
1810 New organisation of government in Russia by the Emperor Alexander: the imperial council.
1812	Constitution of the Cortes in Spain—constitution for the Sicilies by lord W. Bentinck—both dissolved at the restoration in 1814.
1814 Royal Prussian decree, promising a representative government.
1816	Restoration of the Bourbons in Franoei
the French Charter: two chambers, one an hereditary house of peers, the other an elective chamber of deputies—trial by jury—liberty of the press (from 1819.)
Constitution of Norway: suspensive veto of the king—what the storthing has passed at three sessions, the king must accept—no nobility.
1813	The German League: promise of representative governments, a free press, and free trade. Constitution of the Netherlands: two chambers of the stata-gencral—liberty of the press. Aristocratic government restored in Switzerland.
1817	First law of election in France:
Government.
Vain struggle of almost all the monarchies of Europe ainst France—at the peace of Lunevllle, 1801, and Amiens, 1802, the Republic of France appea
England, led on by Pitt and Burke, opposes the French Revolution, and for twenty-three years be-s the head of the great coalitions against it.
1703 Third partition of Poland—This nation, ■' : bulwark of Europe, vanishes from the number of states.
1708 French expedition to Egypt—project of Buonaparte to subdue the Turkish empire: destroyed by ■*“ gallant defence of Acre in Syria.
1800	Talleyrand minister of foreign affairs under the brat Consul—Predominating influence of French diplomacy, giving them almost as great a superiority in the cabinet as in the field.
Talleyrand, Mettemich, and Pozso di Borgo, carry this art to the highest pitch.
1801	Geoigia incorporated with Russia.
The republics swept away, and kingdoms erected for Napoleon's family.
Great efforts pf France to deprive England of the dominion of the sea—the Continental System formed to deprive England of her ships, colonies,
1818	Constitutional government in Bavaria and Baden—two chambers in each—reaction In favour of despotism upon the murder of Kotzebue. 1819 Constitution for Wittemberg—two chambers.—Carlsbad resolution against the liberty of the press.
1819	Rise of a Popular party in England: first claim of Radical Reform— Mayor Cartwright, sir Francis Burdett, William Cobbett, Hunt, etc.
Great political meetings at Manchester, etc. in favour of yearly parliaments, universal suffrage, etc.
Parties of liberals and royalists formed in France, and other countries under various names, radicals, conservatives, camarilla, ministerialists, etc.
1820	Revolutions in Spain: government of the Cortes suppressed, and absolute monarchy restored by the power of French bayonets—i n Naples: suppressed the same year by the Austrians—in Portugal: government of the Cortes till the counter revolution of Don Miguel—in Piedmont (1821): suppressed by Austria—In Greece: Greek constitution, 1822—in Brazil, 1821: Independent, 1822: constitution,
Reaction in France upon the murder of the duke de Berry :
id election’—	«... _e---•—=---,'"ww' —■ --««««-•---------------•
_____itoSOOf. i
stead of five.
New constitution for Portugal by Don Pedro, till 1828, when his brother Don Miguel makes himself absolute king.
1827 Ministry of Canning.
Ministry of Wellington, 1880, who affirms that the constitution, with its rotten boroughs, etc., needs no reform—see p. 51 a.
1829 Presidency of general Jackson in North America—
*>eJ«ns^o democracy, which his predecessor, Quincy Adams, the head of the federal party, had opposed—
1880 Abolition of the Salic law in Spain.
Three days’ Revolution in Frances Tnly, 18301
Occasioned by the ordinances of Charles stopping the freedom of the press, and changing the law of election —the Bourbons expelled— new cognizance of the sovereignty of the people—monarchy, with free institu-tlons—restitution'of the nations guard, who choose their own officers. Amendment of the Charter: the king, the executor of the laws, cannot abolish them—the clumber possesses the initiative of all laws —no censorship of the press to be allowed—libels to be tried only by a jury—no extraordinary tribunals— five years’ parliaments—the presidents of the electoral colleges, and of the chamber of deputies to be elective: this chamber now consists of 459 members, of whom Paris returns twelve—first example in France of the impeachment and condemnation of ministers.
Revolution of Belgium: kingdom of Belgium, 1831—constitution formed by the representatives of the people—two chambers.
Revolution in Switzerland: overthrow of the aristocracy, and formation of a democratic government.
Overthrow of the Wellington administration: Lord Grey and the liberal whigs come into power—p. 51 a.
1831 Revolution in P o lan d: suppressed by Russia,
1880-82 New organisation of the relations between the nobility and burghers of Russia:	.
approximation of the middle classes to the nobility—1831 Ukase respecting the election of nobles to civil offices in the government—1882 Manifesto respecting the better class of burghers in the towns, who, like the nobility, are to be freed from the poll-tax and forced military service, and to share in the elections to communal offices.
Humiliation of Austria and Prussia, 1805-9. 1810 Napoleon's universal monarchy at Its highest pltohl if seemed now too firmly fixed to be overthrown.
1812 Napoleon's great expedition to Russia I army of 500,000 men—project to wrest the East Indies from England—Buonaparte’s eye had always been directed towards the East; compared with which, he called Europe a mole-hill—the East, where lived 600millions of men, he said, was the only sent of great empires.
1813-15 Insurrection of kings and nations against the military dictator.
Battle of Leipsic—overthrow of the great colossus. General restoration of the old monarchies by the two Treaties of Paris and the Congress of Vienna.
Principle of legitimacy again setup—France gives up Belgium, Holland, and Sav ~ ■■■' provinces to Piussia—Lombardy and
tria in Italy. The German Leagi
1815 The Holy Alliance.
1815 Foundation of the preponderance of Russia in Europe:
the acquisition of Poland brings the frontier* of
1831 Constitutional charters granted by the Electors of Hesse and Saxony—in the former, one chamber, in the latter, two.
Ministry of Perrier in France, till 1882:
abolition of hereditary peerage—the king names peers for life, from persons qualified by certain services —new law of election: the system of partial representation still continued, only from 160,000 to IH0,1KI0 electors (quallration 200f. in direct taxes) out of 32 millions of inhabitants [l-8000th]—and only 30,000, paying SOOf. indirect taxes, qualified to be chosen deputies.
Liberty of the press granted by the parliament of Baden—suppressed by the German alliance.
1831 Revolution in Brazil—Don Pedro returns to Europe.
1832 The Reform BUI in Bngland i
forced from the tory nobles and aristocracy by a junction of the whig aristocracy with the people.
Partial disfranchisement of the rotten boroughs—members given to tome of the large towns, and a r. _
tribution of representatives for counties—Extension of the suffrage: in boroughs, to 410 householders (clogged with the rate-paying conditions, and the troublesome and vexatious system of registration) ;in counties, to 4 10 copyholders and 450 tenants at will, which, carried by the landed aristocracy, places the return for the counties almost entirely in their hands— Limited system of representation continued: out of a population of 14,000,000, only from 000,000 to 700,000 electors; and these not free electors, it being everywhere felt, that the object of the Reform Bill has been defeated by the open intimidation of the elector*. Qualification of county members 4500, of borough members 4300, a-ycar, landed property.
1882 Poland incorporated with Russia.
Kingdom of Greece founded—no talk of its constitution.
1888 Municipal government restored m France:
tlie towns aud departments elect their own officers and magistrates, but the system of centralisation still essentially the same as before.
William IV. grants a representative constitution to Hanover—abrogated by the new king, (duke of Cumberland,) 1838.
Portugal a constitutional monarchy—a house of Lords, and 141 deputies. 1834 Abolition of the old council in Spain—replaced by assemblies of the Cortes : 86 proceres, 188 procuradores.
Reaction in England: tory administration of Peel and Wellington—p. 51 a.
Melbourne ministry restored.
Continued agitation in France for a responsible ministry and extension of the elective franchise ; there the monarch reigns and governs, and the cabinet is nothing ; in England the monarch only reigns, and the cabinet is everything.
1888, 9 Agitation of the Chartists in England, for universal suffrage, vote by ballot,etc.—of the manufacturers and middle classes for the repeal of the Com Laws. The Chartists fall into contempt by their appeal to physical force.
Politics & Foreign Relations.
The French Revolution introduces publicity in the administration of justice, and the principle that all are equal in the eye of the law. Independence of judges—trial by jury.
Jeremy Beatbam, the
greatest philosopher and legislator cf the age.
1806 Publication of the Code Napoleon.
Perhaps the greatest monu-—it of his fame—before It _ adopted it was discussed for four years : not only the most distinguished judges and statesmen, but every respectable merchant in France, —i called upon to contribute
Savoy—the Rhine , ----------------- __.nbardy and Venice to Aus-
tria—restoration of the overbearing influence of Aim-
181 0 Arbitrary punishments, etc. by Napoleon’s special and prevotal laws.
1814 Restoration of the Bourbons:
juries preserved—restrictions on the press—Prevotal laws of the Bourlxms to punish political offences.
Increased study of the Roman law m Germany : Savigny, Thi-baut, etc.
1819 New penal code in Naples.
1818 Struggle between monarchs and people:
Carbonari in Italy—the German demagogues—military spiracifs in France—Cortes in Portugal and Spain jdicals in England—conspiracy of the nobles i Poland.
Firm establishment of English dominion its India-see p. 64 d.
From 1820 outbreak and suppression of military revolutions in Spain, Naples, Portugal, Piedmont, and Russia.
Greece the only successful one—Congresses of — -narchs and ministers, from 1818-22, at -la-Chapelle, Carlsbad, Vienna, Troppau, Laybach, Verona.
1821 Brazil revolts from Portugal.
-----’■ Political System i « civil and
religious liberty all over the world"—dies the same year, and is succeeded by Wellington, high tory.
1828	Passion predominancy in Western Asia: by the peace of Turkmanschai she extends her dominion to the Araxes, in the heart of Persia.
1829	The peace of Adrianople with the Porte, places the fate of that power in the hands of the Czar.
1830	Algiers occupied by the French—road to French dominion and civilisation on the African shores of the Mediterranean.
Three days' Revolution in France:
gives an impulse to the desire for political liaprove-
thePri the Jus tUm prevail*.
Alliance of England and France : ministry of Grey, 1880-34—of Casimir Perrier, 1831, 2, in France.
Suppression of the Italian insurrections.
military occupation of the states of the church by Austria, 1881—of Ancona by the French, 1&&
Legislation and Jurisprudence.
1822 Ed. Livingston's Penal code for Louisi-
1825 Amelioration of the English penal code by the labours of sir R. Peel, Brougham, etc.
One hundred and sixty crimes were punishable by death. Attention had been called to the wretched state of our bloody and vindictive code by Air Sam. Komitly, in parliament ; by Will. Eden, In hisjfrinciples of Penal Law, 1771; Bichbno, on Criminal Jurisprudence; Russill, on Crimes and Misdemeanors; Basil Montague’s Selection of Opinions as to the Punishment of Death, 1812, and other works; Boscoe, on Penal Jurisprudence, 1819; and many others.
All political crimes and libels to be tried in France by juries—no extraordinary tribunals to be on any account formed.
Polish insurrection suppressed, and the kingdnn Poland bloued out of the book of stales by Kussi
The kingdom of Belgium, supported by French bayonets in 1831 and 2, has alone preserved its freedom and independence to the present time.
1881 Expedition of Mehemed Ali, viceroy of Egypt, against the Sultan, Mah-mood II.
1832 The new kingdom of Greece conferred by the Conference of London upon the Bavarian prince.
1888 Extension of the Egyptian power by the peace of Kutahia :
Syria and Asia Minor, to the Taurus mountains, to Egypt.
Offensive and defensive treaty between the Porte and Russia.
Quadruple A lli a nee between Franco, England, Spain, and Portugal.
The eyes of European policy are bent on the relations of Russia, Persia, and the English East Indian Empire.
1832 Revision of the French penal code.
1888 English parliap ment appoints a Committee to revise the criminal code.
Finance.
Fourth Period— Restitution qf the right of the people to tax themselves-equality of taxation—budgets and civil lists - the prohibitive system yives way to that of free trade—money and state bank-paper trade—enormous national debts.
1792-1813 England carries on the war against French liberty at the enormous expense qf £130,000,000.
1795 Forced loan in France.
1797	Suspension of cash payments at the Bank of England, in consequence of a run upon it—and immense issue of paper money.
1798	Income tax of W. Pitt;
10 per cent upon all incomes above 4200 * -year,
1799	Napoleon, as first consul, regulates the French finances, which were in great disorder— his talents as a financier were extraordinary.
Indirect taxes and prohibitive system restored t» France-Octrois of the cities—barrier taxes.
1806 Napoleon, by his Continental system, carries the prohibitive system to an outrageous extent.
Abolition of the privileged exemption of the nobility from taxation in Bavaria, 1807.—Wir-temberg, 1808—Prussia, 1810.
1811 Austrian national bankruptcy.
1815 The system of loans, banks, and national debts, carried to great extent, and systematized.
the earliest state* that contracted national debts,'were Spain, France, Holland, and Bngland—German stales, from the time of the French-
1818 The English debt amounts to £850,000,000—it is still nearly as much, taking more than half the yearly income to pay the interest upon it.
General gross increase in the national income:
In England under various reigns.
William and Mary, 1689 2,000,0004.	
George III.	... 1760 8,500,000
	{	
George IV.	... 1820 46,000,000
William IV,	. ... 1830 60,000,000
Victoria .	... 1837 52,950,000
	In France:
Louis XVI.	... 1774 500,000,OOOf.
Charles X.	... 1824 1000,000,000
—	. . . 1833 1 milliarde
Louis Philippe . . 1838 220,000,000-about half raised by indirect taxation— Paris pays l-10th of the French budget. The stats incomes have risen much the > in Austria, Prussia, Russia, etc.
1816 Reestablishment of the system of indirect taxation in France.
1816 Modification of the Tariff in the U. S. of America—see p. 55 a.
1820 Bank of England, in consequence of Sir Robert Peel’s Bill, returns to cash payments :
a measure, which, prudent or not, nearly doubled the amount of Interest on the National Debt, and has caused the greatest disorder and Injustice in all monetary transactions.
1828 Commencement of free-trade system in England by Huskisson.
New Navigation Act—by which foreigners are allowed to trade with British colonies, before restricted to the mother country.
1830 Lord Althorpe chan, of the exchequer:
Rigid economist, by which he reduces the taxes from 460,010,000 to 461,500,000-eventual abolition qf sinecures, etc.
1832 Reduction of the French civil list, after the Three days’ Revolution, from 82,000,000f. to
14,000,000.
Great disorder in the monetary affairs of the United States and of Great Britain.
a
b
e
d
A. c. 1650 to 1792. MODERN CIVILISATION, SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE._____67
War and Marine.	Agriculture,	Trade and Manufactures.	Political Science.	Civilisation in General.
Fifth Period: armed populations again organized: the national guards in France, fyc—formation of large standing armies, not by voluntary enlistments, but by forced military service. 1792 American militia instituted—every citizen from 18 to 15 is enrolled. 1789 The national guards organised throughout France upon the plan adopted by La Fayette for Paris. 1703 The whole French nation summoned to the frontiers to expel the foreigners. The Great War: extraordinary increase of the standing armies : artillery—strategy and tactics brought to the highest perfection, assisted by the great discoveries of the French in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. Carnot, war minister. Order cf battle in two divisions—The charge, with bayonets comes into general use—Bivouacs instead of tents—Flying artillery. The English (in the Roman fashion) carry off the French fleet from Toulon, 1705— the Dutch from the Texel, 1709—the Danish, 1807. English dominion of the sea. John Clerk, d. 1812, improves naval tactics by his celebrated treatise thereon, 1700 98. 1796 Napoleon's first Italian campaign—from Nice to the invasion of Austria, a continuous series of victories. 1798 Expedition to Egypt: like Caesar of old, Buonaparte excited the courage of his soldiers by short harangues—“behold,’’ cried he before the battle of the Pyramids,” from the summit of those monuments forty generations are lookiug down upon you.’’ It was in Egypt that Buonaparte formed his army and his generals—that succession of great marshals whose deeds afterwards astonished the world. Military conscription in France, upon the Roman model— every man from 10 to 40 a soldier. 1800 Napoleon’s second Italian campaign—from Dijon across St. Bernard—Marengo. 1804	Jomim, Traite de Grandes Operations Militaires — highly praised by Buonaparte at St. Helena. Still further increase of standing armies: that of France 000,000 strong. Napoleon's old and young guards—legion of honour, SjC.— from him dales the employment of masses of artillery made to bear U|ron a single point, at the critical moment of a battle—so even at Lulzen and Lcipsic, 1812. Great exertions to improve the French navy: great hydraulic works in all the French ports—the docks at Cherbourg, 1805	Three days’ battle of Austerlitz. Nelson’s victory and death at Trafalgar. 1807 Battles of Eylau and Fried land—the first in Feb. upon the ice. 1807 Completion of the great military road over the Simplon,connecting France and Italy. Use of Congreve rockets at Uie bombardment of Copenhagen. Victories of Wellington over the French in Portugal and Spain—battles of Salamanca and Vittoria, 1812 and 1813. 1809	The French victory at Wagram. 1810	The Guerillas in Spain. 1812 Bonaparte’s expedition to Bussla, the greatest since the Crusades, see p. 52, 53. Immense power of the English navy-in 1813 it consisted of 1000 ships of war, carrying 27,000 guns, and 145,000 1814	Hiking power of the navy cf the United States of North America. Although small, the American navy shows great gallantry in the war with England, and proves the courage and tactics of its sailors, and the excellence of its vessels. 1815	Improved system of fortification by the Prussians at Cologne and Coblentz. The military system of Europe introduced into Turkey by Sultan Mahmoud, and in Ei/ypt by Mehemed Ali, assisted by trench officers. The Egyptian army thus organised 24,000 strong In 1823, and by it Mehemed gained his victories of 1832, 3. 1819	Military colonies in Russia: originally estimated to create, in ten years, a Rnsslan army of 6,000,000. The Russian force, distributed over its immense territories, is now, in time of peace, reckoned at 1,000,000. 1820	Military revolutions break out in the standing armies of Spain, Portugal, Piedmont, Naples, Russia, &c. 1826	The Janizaries disbanded throughout the Turkish empire. 1827	Ordinance of Charles X. for the dissolution of the Parisian national guards. 1827 Turkish-Egyptiau fleet destroyed at Navarino. French Revolution, 1830— Barricades—the Swiss guard dissolved— national guards again organised, with free election of their own officers, throughout France, forming a corps of 4,000,000: Paris alone furnishes 80,000 men. Fortification of Linz. 1831 Heroic deeds of the Poles in their Struggle against Russia—glorious days of Grochow ; on the bridge of Ostrolcnka, Ac. Generals: Scrzynecki,Dwcrnicki, Uminski, Ac.—celebrated retreat of general Dembinski. 1833 Strength of the English navy: 600 ships of war, with 30,000 men—Army: 120,000; in India,’25,000, besides 240,000 natives under English officers. French navy: 300 ships of war—Army : 3, to 400,000 men. Russian navy: 400 ships of war. Austrian standing army: about 300,000 men, and 400,000 militia (landuiehr). Prussian standing army: 150,000 men, and 400,000 militia (tandwehr). United States of America, navy : 70 ships of war—this great republic only keeps up an army of 6000 men in time of peace. 1833 Project of Louis Philippe to fortify ' Paris with fourteen forts.	I f.asantry, etc.	1804 Prizes to promote improvements in manufactures offered by Napoleon: 1,000,000f. for the best flax-spinning machine, See. Increasing development of French manufactures, §c. by the application of great chemical discoveries : Chaptal, Berthollet, Monge, Src. 1806	Continental system of Na- poleon,/or the ruin cf English commerce: modified in 1810 by the licensing system— Tarif of Trianon and Decree of Fontainebleau, for burning English goods in every part of Europe— new impulse to manufactures in Germany and France. 1807	English Orders In Connell. 1807	First Steam-boat on the Hudson in the U. S. by Foi.ton. First steam-boat built in Europe, 1811—established between Yarmouth and Norwich, 1813—one between Gravesend and Liracbouse, capable of bolding three hundred persons, 1815. 1808	Prussian municipal regulations, upon the principle of pcpnlar election—the burgesses choose the city councillors—these the magistrates—government reserving to itself the right of confirmation, 1815. 1810 Free trade in Prussia. 1812 Discontent of the manufacturers in England on account of the Orders in Council: Napoleon’s system very nearly being effectual. 1818	Steam carriages In England. 1815	Polytechnicinstitution at Vienna. Introduction of manufactories in Poland under Russian dominion— hitherto the Poles had been almost exclusively corn growers or graziers. Immense extension of funded paper trade. The father of the Rothschilds, now the greatest money capitalists and brokers in the world, and who have contracted loans with every potentate in Europe, in 1810 was a poor little banker Ht Frankfort. The sums they have negotiated from 1813 to 1833 has been estimated at £160,000,000 sterling. Treaty forthe abolition of the Slave Trade at the Congress of Vienna— Denmark had abolished this hateful traffic in 1792. As early as 1791 this subject was taken up in England by James Stephens, d. 1833, and wilbcrforce; the latter brought it before parliament, where, by the force of popular opinion, it continued to make way, till its final abolition in 1833 by the wliigs; Brougham one of its strongest opponents—£20,000,000 was paid to the slaveholders as an indemnity. 1816	Strict prohibitive system restored in France. Flourishing state of trade and manufacture in the U. S. of America from the general peace— cotton and woollen spinning and weaving machines introduced—great exertions for the encouragement of native industry — considerable trade with China-extensive canals and railroads: the Buffalo canal, 360 miles loug, connecting lake Erie with the Hudson and New York, completed in eight years, 1817-25; Railway from Baltimore to the Ohio, 350 miles long : two of the greatest undertakings of the present age—upwards of 100 steam-boats ply on the Mississippi. A etc York the great seat of Trade. Tarif of the U. S. of N. America upon the introduction of foreign goods—all exports free—New State Bank—Navigation Act, 18.7, on the principle of strict rccipro- 1819	Riots in Manchester and other manufacturing districts. Tkrnai’x Introduces Cashmere goats into France, and founds liis celebrated manufactory of Cashmere shawls. 1821 Rise of Mechanic Institutions, in England, chiefly by the labours of Brougham — adopted in France, Germany, &c., after the English model. 1823 Huskisson, d. 1830, introduces the system of free trade : importation of foreign goods allowed in their own ships—foreigners allowed to trade with our colonics—restriction taken off the exportation of wool. 1825	Mail-posts in Prussia—steam-navigation on the Rhine. 1823 First manufactory in Egypt by Mehemct Ali, assisted by the French. General Panic In England 1825-6 —occasioned by over-speculations in 1824, 25, encouraged by facility of discounting at the Bank of England, which now suddenly contracted its issues. 1826	New discontents of the manufacturing workmen in England. Increasing progress of Austrian, Prussian, Russian, and American manufactures— 1827, 6000 woollen manufactories in Russia— Russian exports, which in 1789 were only 19,000,000, amounted in 1827 to 239,000,000 silver roubles ; her trade predominates on the Caspian sea after the Persian peace of Turk-manshai. , 1830	Opening of the great Elver-pool and Manchester railway. Amazing extent of English trade— 15,000 vessels arrive yearly in the port of London—Liverpool 'he next seaport for trade 1831	Outbreaks of the silk manufacturers of Lyons—destruction of machinery by the workmen of England and Switzerland about the same time. English Factory Bill—limiting the hours of labour for children, which had hitherto been from twelve to sixteen hours a-day. Formation of societies of labourers and workmen to obtain better wages in England, France, Germany, Switzerland, &c.— Trade Unions. 1833 Commercial treaty of the princ ipal states cf Germany—this union raises Prussia to a trading state of the first rank. Railways—the capital authorised by acts of parliament to be raised for railways iu 1833-36, was £20,000,000; the estimate for those applied for in 1837 was £31,000,000.	Period of the French Revolution. General tendency to lessen the powers and privileges of monarchy and aristocracy, and to admit the people to the rights of citizenship. 1. France. Eu. Jos. Sieges, b. 1748, his celebrated pamphlet ‘ Qu’est-ce qne Ic tiers etatt’ 1789. Condorcet, d. 1791—Mirabeau, 1749 01, the most popular orators iu the National Assembly—also Guadet, Bar nave, Vergniaud, Ac., all gnillotincd during the Reign of Terror. The Moniteur, the principal journal of the Revolution, begun by Marat, continued by the duke of Bassano. 2.	England. Ed. Bnrkef 1750-97, the bitterest foe of, and the most powerful writer against, the new principles in France: his Reflections upon the French Revolution;’ answered by Sir James Mackintosh, in his ‘ Vindicia' Gallic*’—T. Paine, Mr. Christie, Capel Lofft, Ac. William Pitt, 1759-1806, the most active opposer of the French Revolution; a most eloquent speaker in parliament, and highly-gifted statesman: called by his, disciples the Heaven-bom minister, the Pilot who weathered the storm, Ac. He laid the foundation of that line of policy, which, acted upon by his successors, Perci-val, lord Liverpool, Castlereagh, Canning, Ac., probably saved Europe from becoming an universal monarchy nuder the despotism of France : but it has left England burdened with a debt of nearly a thousand millions, the ruinous effects of which time only will reveal. Charles Tames Fox, 1748 1806, the opponent of Pitt and Burke, leader of the wliigs, advocate of popular rights, powerful speaker, enlightened and noble statesman. Other English Oratohs and Statesmen. Wilbcrforce—Will. Windham, 1750-1810— Sam. Whitbread, d. 1815—J. P. Curran, d. 1817—R. B. Sheridan, d. 1816—Hen. Grattan, d. 1820, Ac. Will. Godwin, d. 1836, Political Justice. 3.	Germany. Opponents of the French Revolution: Brandes, d. 1810 —Rehberg, h. 1757— Gent:, the translator of Burke. Fichte, d. 1814, the celebrated philosopher; he espoused the French cause, declaring that “ the principles upon which the Frcncli Republic rested, were the only ones by which the true dignity of man could be protected.” 1. French Politics of the times of Napoleon, the Restoration, SjC. Destrutt de Tracy, the metaphysician, ‘ Comment upon Montes- Chiefs cf the Theocratic or Ultra Montain party : Bonald—Le Maistre, d. 1821, Ac. Chateaubriand, head of the royalists—Louis XVIII. said of his pamphlet ‘ Bonaparte ami the Boorbons,’ that it was worth an army to him—pamphlets against the monarchy of 1830. Benj. Constant, 1767-1830, head of the liberals at Uie Restoration, eloquent speaker. Pierre Paul Boyer Collard, b. 1703, head of Uie doctrinaires, celebrated speaker of the left centre. P. L. Courrier, murdered 1825, political pamphlets, celebrated as masterpieces of political irony. De Pradt, Bignon, of the Napoleon school— Villele and Martignac, ministers upon the Restoration. Casimir Perrier, d. 1832, founder of the Jnste-Mllli eu system. Francois Guizot, b. 1787, celebrated writer and speaker, leader of the doctrinaires since the Revolntion of 1830, and great advocate of the justc-inillicu system. Adolphe Thiers, b. about 1800, sometime editor of the National : minister 1832,and, with Guizot, chief supporter of the jiiite-inillicti policy ; highly-gifted speaker and statesman, head of the left-centre and of the parliamentary party. Cormenin, b. 1788, liberal, and chief opponent of the doctrinaires, his three celebrated * P h i Ii ppiq ues.’ De Lamtnenais, author of the celebrated ‘ Paroles d’nn Croyanl, 1834,condemned by nearly all parties: it favours a sort of Fifth Monarchy system. Odilon Barrot, b. 1791, and Mauguin, b. 1785, head of the extreme gauche (radicals), popular speakers. Dupin, one of the chiefs of the popular party. Contemporaries, distinguished as speakers, %c. Manuel, d. 1823—General Foy, d. 1825—Lamarque, d. 1832— Lafayette, d. 1834, Ac. Tocqueville’s ‘ History of Democracy in America.’ 2. English Statesmen and Speakers since Pitt and Fox. Tory. Whig. Addington (lord Sidmouth). Lord Grenville, d. 1834. Duke of Portland. George Ponsonhy, d. 1817. Percival, (1. 1810. Sir Sam. Rumilly, d. 1818. Castlereagh. Sam. Whitbread, d. 1815. Jenkinson (lord Liverpool). Ix>rd Erskine, d. 1823. Vansittart (lord Bexley). George Tierney, d. 1830. Lord Chancellor Eldon. William Cobbett. George Canning, d. Henry Hunt. 1827, William Huskisson, (1. 1830. Celebrated living Statesmen, Speakers, $c. Sir Robert Feel, b. Earl Grey, head of the reform 1788, the head anil hope of ministry, 1830. the tories, premier, 1834, Henry Eord Brougham, for four months. b. 1770, leader of the opposition 71 111 the House of Commons, 1817-Duke of H elhngton. 3o_celcbralcd as a philosopher, Lord Lyndhurst. critic, and statesman—lord clian-Goulburn. cellor, 1830—especially deserving Fnrl Aberdeen. of universal esteem for his itnrc-* milting exertions against the slave A’ir G. Murray. trade, and for the spread ofknow-Sir F. Burdett, for a long ledge among the working classes. time leader of the radicals. Lord John Russell — Lord Mel-Lord Roden, Gladstone, and bofrnf~1fTdF Sir Rob. Jnylis, heads of MotUeaale-Earl Radnor—Lord —Roebuck—G rote— Duncombe— Leader, Ac. Quarterly Periodicals: Edinburgh Review, whig—Quarterly Review, tory— tf estininsler, radical—British and Foreign, liberal whig. Monthly: Blackwood and Frazer, tory—7Yiif, radical— Monthly Chronicle, whig. Newspapers. Daily: The Times, anything and everything, now conservative—Morning Post, Morning Herald, and Standard, tory — Morning Chronicle, Globe, whig—The Sun, radical — Weekly : John Bull,lory—Examiner, whig—Spectator,Dispatch and True Sun, radical. America. Statesmen, §c. of the U. S. of North America. Presidents Jefferson, d. 1826, and Jackson, b. 1767—l an Buren. Statesmen: Everett— Webster. Achille Murat, son of the late king of Naples, tbe North American , Delolme, his ‘ Expose du Gouvernment Republicain, 1833. 3. German political writers, $*c. of modern times. Kant, d. 1804—Fichte— laiden, professor at leva—Hugo, at Gottingen— Gorres, editor of the Reinischen Mercurs, against Napoleon, now professor at Munich, and one of the most celebrated of the catholic legitimists. Since the Restoration, the politics of Germany have divided into three branches : 1. The Catholic Legitimists, chiefly at Vienna: ! C. L. Von Haller, b. 1708, the great opposer of Rousseau's ‘ Social Contract,’ of representative government, of all popular rights, and the firm supporter of despotism ; his principal work, ‘ Keslauralion d. Staatswissenschaft,’ 1810. Ad. Muller, d. 1829, * Elemente d. Staatskunst,’ 1819. F. Von Schleyel, the critic and poet. 	 Jarcke, b. about 1799, now head of the catholic legitimists. 2 Protestant Legitimists, mostly at Berlin : Hegel: his philosophy has a vast influence in the support of this . parly : lie considers the European monarchies as the highest torni . of political life. - , , „ Fried. Ancillon, b. 1706, several political works: he opposes all ex- . tremc opinions. 3. Liberals, in the constitutional states: Steffens, 1819-Troxter, professor at Bern, opponents of Haller. 1‘estalozzi, the celebrated Swiss. Carl, von Rottech, b. 1775, professor at Freiburg. Carl. Th. Welcker, b. 1790, professor at Freiburg—Mur-hard, at Cassel—A'/oier, and Lud. Borne, at Frankfort on the Maine.	Fifth Period : From the French Revolution to the present time. In England, notwithstanding the ruinous wars in which she is engaged, the cultivation of every branch of industry, science, and literature, i9 carried to the highest pitch. Protected by free institutions,and fostered and encouraged by the unbounded wealth accumulated by commercial enterprise, man and society here develope themselves with wonderful facility, and attain a wonderful perfection. Great improvement in the state cf the country : the finest in Enrope as regards cultivation of the soil, and internal communication—her roads, bridges, canals, coaches, and, lately, steam navigation and railways. Her splendid buildings, public and private—parks, palaces, streets, and houses—her numerous societies for the improvement of art, science, manufacture, and literature ; as well as for the protection of property, and the reliefof distress. Great progress of practical politics, especially as regards constitutional monarchies, by parliamentary debates—Mackintosh, Whitbread, Canning, Burdett, Russell, Brougham, Peel, Ac. 1789	Free press in France : (he Moniteur the first political Jourual without censorship. Great Influence of Periodical Literature. Flourishing period of English Oratory: Pitt, Fox, Burke, Sheridan, Ac.—Jn France: Mira-bcau, and the orators of the Gironde. Lavoisier, at Paris, Sir Humphrey Davy, In England, and Berzelius, in Sweden, improve and introduce a new system of Chemistry. 1793 Suppression of the ancient academies and leaned societies by the French Republicans— yet, in suite of civil troubles, scientific and artls-tical studies arc carried on with great spirit, and not without encouragement: the great French National Institute—Polytechnic School—Borcau of Longitudes—Conservatory of Music, Ac. In Germany: Reform of Philosophy by Kant: his ‘ Critik* of Pure Reason, 1781, has a great influence upon general literature, but especially Theology.—Fichte. Revival of the Romantic Poetry of the Middle Ages in Germany by the two SchlegcU and Tieck. 1798 Progress and influence of European Vfe and : civilisation in the East, sluce the French expedition. Die AUgemeine Zeitung, at Augsbnrg, the first newspaper journal in Germany extending to the affairs of Enrope. 1790	Pestalozzi in Switzerland, founder of elementary instruction. 1800 &c. Study of Oriental Literature greatly promoted by the English: East India colleges at Calcutta, 1800— Haileybury, 1806—Sanscrit college at Calcutta, 1824—Colonel Roden’s professorship at Oxford, 1830. Horace Jlayman Wilson, professor 1832, the first Sanscrit scholar of the age. Eminent English Orientalists: H. T. Colebroke —W. Carey—Craufurd—J. Marsliman—W.Mars-den, Ac. — the Asiatic Researches—Maurice’s ‘ Indian Anliq.’ Hebraists: Dr. Nicliol—Lee—Pusey—and Stewart, of the United States. French Orientalists : Silvester de Sacy and Langles in Arabic— Rcmusat and Klaproth in Tartar and Chinese—Cliezy and Burnouf in San- German Orientalists: the Sclilegels, Bopp, Wise-niann, Bcnary, Lassen, in Sanscrit—Koscgrrtcn, Frey tag, Ro-cnmnller, Habicht, in Persian and Arabic — Gcscnius, Ewald, Winer, Hoffman, Obcrlcitner, Schrader, in Hebrew, Syriac,Ac. Hamakcr iu Holland. 1801-14 Period of Napoleon’s great encouragement of the Natural and Mathematical Sciences: Astronomers and Mathematicians: Laplace, Lagrange, Monge, Dclambre—Chemists: Four-croy, Vauqnelin, Berthollet, Thcnard, Chaptal— Physics: Hatty, Biot—Naturalist: Cuvier. New buildings and great improvements in Paris, Rome, Milan, Ac.—the Simplon, bridges, canals, roads, Ac. throughout the empire—the Musee Napoleon. Classical Literature flourishes : At Oxford: Elinrlcy, d. 1825 ; Dr. Gaisford, Greek professor, his ‘ Poeti Minorca Gnoci,’ ‘Herodotus,’ * Suidas,’ Ac.; Koulli.—At Cambridge : Poi son, d. 1808; Dobree; Blomficld ; Dr. Sam. Parr.d. 1827. In Germany: Wolf, d. 1824; Heyne, d. 1808; Schneider; Hermann; Bekkcr; Dindorf, Ac. New impulse given to the study of the language and antiquities of Egypt by the French expedition, and Dr. y oung’s discovery of Phonetic hieroglyphics. On the language: the works of Champollion, Spolin,Seylartb, Klaproth, Pahlin, Salt, the marquis Spinetto, Tattam—on Antiquities: the works ofDcuon, Wilkinson, Heercn, Ac. Ez ertums of English Travellers to explore the interior of Africa, and to discover a North-west passage to India. 1810 University of Berlin — here flourish the philosophers Fichte, Schlelcrmaclier, Hegel—the historians Haumcr, Wilkens, von dor Hagen— the philologist Bekkcr—the civilians, Savigny, Cans, Ac. 1812 Flourishing period of English Poetry and Romance: Lord Byron, Scott, Southey, Wordsworth, Campbell, Bulwer, &c. 1815, Ac. Philosophical school of the Doctrinaires in France : Guizot, Hoycr Collard, Cousin— Benj. Constant, politician—historians: Scgur, Mignet, Thiers, Thierry, Ac. Fast influence of Periodical Literature and Newspapers In France, England, Germany, America, die. Increasing civilisation of the U. 8. Of North America 1 the prosperity, population, and commerce of this federative republic increase almost beyond belief; while extensive provision is made for education, by the foundation of colleges, schools, public libraries, literary institutions, Ac. 1818 University of Bonn—here flourish the historians Niebuhr and Hiillinann—A. W. Schlegel, Ac. publication of the * Byzantine Historians.’ 1822 Victor Hugo, iiead of’tlie new school of Romance w riters in France— Uhland and Heine in-Germany. 1826 University of Munich. rhe viceroy of Egypt sends young Egyptians to study at Paris—the Egyptian Moniteur, the first 1828 l/niversity o}London founded. 1831 Tbe Ottoman Moniteur founded, the first newspaper in Constantinople. 1833 The Penny Magazine began by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, founded 1827, principally by lord Brougham. Extraordinary extent of Periodical Literature In England. STast book-making trade in Germany: 2500 new books in 1814 ; in 1824, 4500 ; iu 1832, (1300.
	1799 First prize cattle show in Smithfield. 1804	Sir H. Davy's application of chemistry to agriculture. 1805	Horticultural societies— these and agricultural societies now exist in every part of England. 1805 Feudal rights abolished in Spain and Naples—restored after the war. 1807-11 Abolition of the burdens on land, and overthrow of patrimonial jurisdiction in Prussia—rise instead of a number of small independent landholders : this system has mainly raised Prussia to her present power. 1814	N. America: gold mine in Virginia, N. Carolina, and Georgia— the yearly produce is now about 5,000,000 dollars. New and increasing culture of land in N. America, after the general peace— cotton produced, 1816, 68.000.	0001b., in 1822, 370.000.	000—ever increasing acquisition of territory, cleared and cultivated by new settlers, either from the N. American slates, or numerous emigrants. 1815	New Corn Law In England —passed in order to favour the great landed proprietors, by keeping up the price of bread : a most cruel measure for the poor, and a disastrous one for manufacturers ; as such,a continual object of attack by Uie popular party. 1818	Abolition of predial bondage, and emancipation from territorial oppressions proclaimed by government acts in Bavaria— 1819	in Wurtem-berg—1832 in Saxony—1833 in Hanover. 1824 Great increase in the produce of wool in Germany — 3,500,000 paid by England this year for German wool. 1831 The culture of silk flourishes in Lombardy: about £4,000,000 sterling ejyrort yearly-half to England. Sir J. Sinclair, d. 1836, great Scotch agriculturalist. Arthur Young, 1741-1820. 1830 The growth of wool very flourishing in Van Dieman’s land —nearly 2,000,000lbs. exported to England.			
b
d
68 Table xxiil
SYNOPTICAL VIEW
From A. C. 1400,
Italian Painters.
This school is distinguished for its great excellence in design, and surpassing merit in keeping, truth and hirtoric accuracy.
Glow. Clmabue, 1240-1300,
The father of modern painting. He leaves the style of the Greeks his teachers; takes nature for his guide; sets the fint example of large compositions, and founds a new school distinguished for boldness, majesty, and strength.
Giotto, 1276-1336,
A shepherd boy, whom, for his great talents, Cimar hue adopted and taught The first who succeeded in portrait painting—likenesses of Dante, Brunetto Latini, and Corao Donatl
Scholars and imitators of Giotto: Taddeo Oaddi, d. 1352, his favorite pupil—Spinello of Atommo—Simone di Martino, d. 1344—Lippo Menrni—Giottino (properly Thomato di Stefano), distinguished above all his contemporaries for the beauty of his pictures—Andrea di done, 1329-89.
1349 The Florentine painters form themselves into a religious fraternity, called “ The Society of St Luke.”
FUiippo Brunelietehi, d. 1446, the first who brought perspective to perfection in the representation of
Remarkable for the judicious selection and disposition of colours, and the grace of its heads.
Guidone —, flourished before Cimabue—departs ' from the rude style of the Greek painten.
Mino, in 1289, paints at Siena the Virgin and Infant Saviour, an extraordinary performance for that age.
Duccio di Boninsegna, living in 1339.
Lorenzetti Ambrogio, d. 1340.
Simone Memmi, d. 1344; the painter of Laura, and the friend of Petrarch.
In the commencement of the 16th century various foreign artists are invited to Siena in consequence of the decline of the native school. Thenceforward the Sienese make rapid strides towards the modem style.
Jooopo Pacehiarotto, leaves Siena in 1535. Gianiiantonio Razzi, <L 1554.
Domenico Beccafumi (Mecherino), d. 1549. Baldassare Peruzzi, 1481-1536.
Arcangiolo Salimbeni, living in 1579.
Alessandro Casolani, 1552-1606.
Ventura Salimbeni, 1557-1613.
Franoesco Vanni, 1565-1609.
Paolo Uocello first shows skill in foreshortening.
Masolino da Panicale, d. 1415, cultivates the art of Chiaroscuro.
Kaaaoclo (RCaso dl B. Giovanni,) d. IMS,
assigned the first place by Mengs and Vasari among those who paved the way for the modem style.
[Scholars and imitators of Masaccio: Beato Giovanni Angelico, 1387-1455—Benozxo Gozzoli, d. 1469—Fra FiUippo Lippi, 1400-69—Andrea del Castagno, d. 1477, learns the secret of oil painting from Domenico, and afterwards assassinates
More ideal beauty than in other schools, design founded on the antique, composition sober, keeping correct.
Pietro Perugtno, 1446-1524, master of RaflaeL
BaflwUo Sanzlo 61 Urbino, 1483-1620,
head of the Roman school, the greatest painter of modem times—excels in design and invention, sublime representations of feeling and passion.
Scholars of Raffael: Giulio Romano, 1492- Jacopo da Ponte (Bassano), d. 1592. 1546, Raffael’s favourite—Penni (il Fattore), d.
1528, assistant of Raffael—Perino Buonaocorsi del Vaga, d. 1547—Gioe. da Udine, d. 1542—
Polidoro Caldara (da Caravaggio), d. 1543—
Benvenuto da Garafalo, 1481-1559.
Exquisite beauty of colouring and decoration-drapery admirable.
About 1300, partly through the example of Giotto, the Venetian painten begin to assume a better style.
Gian Bellini, d. 1516.
Gentile Bellini, 1421-1501.
Andrea Mantegna, d. 1506.
Commencement of the golden age of Venetian painting.
Giorgione BarbareOi dl Caatolfraneo,
6. 1S&1,
companion and rival of Titian. Sebastiano del Piombo, d. 1547, pupil of Giorgione and rival of Raffael—invents a method of painting in oils on stone.
Lorenzo Lotto, d. ab. 1560.
Palma Vecchio, d. 1574.
Giovanni CarianL Paris Bordone, d. 1570.
Gio. Antonio Licrnio (Pordenone), d. 1540.
Titian, 6. 1876,
head of the Venetian school—surpasses all others as a colourist, in pourtraying the human countenance, and in delineating the affections of the mind.
Andrea Schiavone, 1522-82.
Jacopo Robusti (Tintoretto), 1512-94, a scholar of Titian's, but dismissed out of jealousy of his abilities. Great boldness and fertility of imagination, composition chaste and correct, but many of his later works betray both error of design and defect of judgment
Eminent in keeping and chiaroscuro.
Domenico Corradi (il Ghirlandaio), 1451-95.
Verocehio, 1432-88, master of Leonardo da Vinci.
Luca Signorelli, 1440-1521, powerful and expressive, displayed a correct knowledge of the anatomy of the human frame.
Leonardo da Vinci, 1444-1819,
sculptor, architect, and painter. The father of modem painting—remarkable for gracefulness of design, accurate development of the passions, and delicacy of pencilling. Superintends an academy of the fine arts at Milan.
Fra Bartolommeo, 1469-1517 ) scholars of Mariotto AlbertinelR, d. 1512 j Leonardo.
Mohael Angelo Benarrnotl, 1474-1863,
sculptor, painter, and architect The Dante of art A perfect master of anatomy. Paints the Cartoon of the Battle of Pisa in competition with Da Vinci, whom he i-------
1527 Capture of Rome by the Spaniards, and destruction of many fine works then in progress.
Taddeo (1529-66) and Fred. Zuccaro, <L 1609, brothers. Their extravagant works in fresco at Rome show already a decline in the art
Giuseppe Cesari, 1560-1640.
Federigo Barocci, d. 1612, contributes much towards the reformation of the art
Michael Angelo Amerighi da Caravaggio, 1569-1609, recalls the art from mannerism to truth.
Andrea Sacehi, d. 1661, pupil of Annibale Caraccl Giambatista Salvi (Sassoferrato), 1605-85.
Pietro da Cortona, 1596-1669.
Nicholas Poussin, arrives in Rome 1624, forma his style from Raffael and the antique.
Landscape Painters.
Salvator Rosa, 1615-73, scholar of Spagnoletto, excels in the gloomy and romantic style.
Gaspar Poussin, 1613-75, style beautiful and
Paolo Veronese, d. 1888,
surpassed all other painters in representing in pictures on a large scale, architectural ornaments, rich dresses, Ac., celebrated for the Suppers he painted.
Decline of Painting at Venice. Jacopo Palma Giovane, 1544-1628.
Marco Boschino, d. 1678.
Carlo Ridolfi, 1602-60, ‘ Lives of the Venetian Painters.’
Giov. Bail. Piazette, 1682-1754 — Giov. Bait. Ttepolo, 1693-1769—Piet. Rotari, 1707-62—Ant. Canaietti, d. 1768—Bern. Belloto, style of Cana-letti, d. 1780, architectural prospects — Gian. Cignaroli, d. 1770, the last painter of the Venetian school.
establishes a School of Design at Milan.
Cesare da Sesto, d. 1524, the most eminent of Da Vinci’s scholars.
Bemardin Lovino.
Gaudenxio Ferrari, 1484-1550.
The Procaccini establish a new academy.
Eroole Procaccini, d. 15---Camillo Pro-
eaccini, d. ab. 1591—Giulio Procaccini, d.
1626 — Carlant. Procaccini, d. 16-----
Daniele Crespi, <L 1630.
No painten of any note after Crespi.
Bolognese School.
This school, which, after haring been the pupil of all, becomes the master of all, is indebted for its celebrity to the genius of the three Carracci.
Franco Bolognese, living 1313, the Giotto of this school
Vitale da Bologna, pupil of Franco.
IAppo di Dalmasio.,
Marco Zoppo.
Francesco Francia, d. 1553.
Ansovino da Forli (Melozzo).
Bartolommeo Ramenghi (Bagnaeavallo), 1493-1551.
Francesco Primaticcio, 1490-1570.
Pellegrino Pellegrini (Tibaldi), 1527-1591.
Bartolommeo Passerotti, <L 1592.
Bartolommeo Cesi, 1556-1629.
School of the OarracoL
Audovtco Carracci, 1888-1619,
head and founder of the school.
Scholars of Michael Angelo: Pietro Urbano —Antonio Mini—Asoanio Condivi.
Daniele di Volierra, d. 1566, the most successful of Michael Angelo’s imitators.
Francesco Granacoi, 1477-1544.
Andrea del Sarto, 1488-1830.
the Tibullus of painting.
Pontormo (Jacopo Carruci), scholar and rival of del Sarto.
Rosso (Motors Artur), <L 1541.
Rodolfo Ghirlandajo, d. 1560.
Giorgio Vasari, 1512-1574, writes the Lives of the Painters.
Francesco de’ Salviati, 1510-1563.
Angiolo Bronzino, d. 1571; Letters on Painting.
Antonio Tempesti, d. 1630; one of the first in Italy celebrated in landscape and battle pieces.
Lodovieo Cardi da CxgoU, 1559-1613.
Carlo Doloi, 1616-86, in much repute for Madonnas and small devotional pictures.
Pietro da Cortona, 1596-1669; attains high eminence in composition.
prince of landscape painters.
Andrea Mantegna, 1430-1506.
Carlo del Mantegna,
Giovanni Carotto, 1470-1546,	[followers of
Francesco Monsignori, 1455-1519, | Mantegna. Girolamo Monsignori,	*
Olulio Bomano, d. 1846,
Scholar and heir of Raffael, the founder of another and more beautiful school than that of Mantegna.
Annibale Carracci, 1860-1609,
greatest of the three Carracci—excelled i landscape.
Cortona’s imitators prejudice the art.
Carlo Maratta, 1625-1713, upholds the Roman school from degenerating so much as the rest.
Raffael Mengs, 1728-1779, studies Raffael and Correggio—assists Winckelmann in his History of Art, writes severed profound treatises on painting.
Tommaso de’ Stgfani, d. 1310.
Giotto invited to Naples, 1325, to paint the church of S. Chiara, and has as his companion in the work one Maestro Simone, who, through Giotto, acquires a high reputation at Naples.
Francesco di Simone, d. 1360.
Antonio Solaria (lo Zingaro), 1382-1455, introduces a style borrowed from various other schools.
Bamabo da Modena, b. 1377.
Seraftno di Serafini da Modena, b. 1385.
Antonio Begarelli.
Pelegrino da Modena, d. 1523, scholar of RaflaeL Nieeold dell* Abate, 1509-71.
Lelio Orsi, d. 1587.
Schedone, d. 1615.
The modem style founded by the followers of Raffael and Michael Angelo.
Andrea Sabbatini, 1480-1545, scholar of Raffael.
Bellisario Corenzio, <L 1643, pupil of Tintoretto.
Giuseppe Ribera (Spagnoletto), 1595-1656, takes Caravaggio as his modeL
Giambatista Caracciolo, d. 1641, a successful follower of the Carracci
Guido, Domenichhno, Lancfranco, and Artemisia Gentileschi during this period spend much time at Naples, and contribute some pupils to the Neapolitan SchooL
Cav. Mattia Preti (Il Calabrese), 1613-99, scholar of Guercino.
Luca Giordano, 1632-1705.
Francesco SoRmene, 1654-1747.
Antonio Allegri (Correggio), 1494-1834,
Head of the Lombard schools. Pre-eminent in chiaroscuro-eminent for the beauty and simplicity of his youthful and infantine heads.
Francesco Mazzuola (II. Parmegiano), 1503-40, follower of Correggio, distinguished for gracefulness of style.
Camillo Boecaccino, d. 1546. Bernardino Gotti, d. 1575. Giulio Campi, d. 1572. Bernardino Campi.
Gio. Baptista Trotti.
celebrated also as an engraver.
Domenico Zampieri (Domenichino), 1581-1641, the most distinguished scholar of the Carracci
Francesco Albani, 1578-1660, the Anacreon of painting.
Guido Reni, 1578-1642, by many considered the greatest of the school of the Carracci— his earlier works full of grace and majesty.
Giov. Barbieri (Guercino), 1590-1666, not properly a scholar of the Carracci, but related to their schooL
Giov. Lamfranco, of Parma, 1581-1647. Style easy and grand—celebrated for his large and splendid pictures.
Lionello Spado, d. 1662.
Giacomo Cavedone, d. 1660.
Carlo Ognani, 1628-1719.
Citu. Crespi (lo Spagnuolo), 1665-1747.
Giov. Grimaldi and Giov. Bait. Viola, ab. 1687, landscape painten.
Marcantonio Francesehmi, 1648-1729.
Ferrarese.—Dosso Dossi, d. 1560—Benvenuto Ganfalo, d. 1599.
G e n o e s e.—Theart never properly flourished in Genoa, but some roreignere painted there; as Perino del Vaga, of Rome—later Bernardo Strozzi, d. 1644—Benedetto Casti-glione, 1616-1700.
Living Artists: Vmcenzio Camuocmi, at Rome, painter of St. Peter's church there, and celebrated through all Italy—Benvenute, director of the Acad, at Florence—Bossi and Appiani,
at Milan, both lately dead.
»____________________________ The celebrated engravers Morgen and Longhi both lately dead—Toschi, at Parma, still living.
b
d
From A. C. 1400.
OF MODERN PAINTERS.
69
Flemish, Dutch, Spanish, English, and French Painters.
This school has no distinguishing characteristics,, but has produced successful followers of both the Italian and Dutch musters.
Hubert Van Eyck, 1366-1426, founder of the r Flemish school.
John Van Eyck, 1370-1441, inventor of oil painting.
Quintin Malays, of Antwerp, 1450-1529. Roger of Bruges, d. 1455.
Hugo van der Goes, d. 1481.
Michael Wohlgemuth, of Ntlmberg, 1434— 1519, master of Albrecht Durer.
1500.
Flourishing period of the art In Germany.
Albrecht Borer, 1*71-1528,
head of the German school. Excels in design; he was also a seal cutter, and engraver both in copper and wood.
Lucas Kranach, 1470-1553, also famous for his wood cuts—portraits of Luther and Me-lanchthon.
John de Mabeuae, 1492-1562.
Botch.
Excels in chiaroscuro, in the faithful representation of subjects from humble life, and in landscape, animals, flowere, and fruit.
Cornelius Engelbrechtsen, 1468— 1553.
1500.
design and colouring; also in wood cuts— his Dance of Death.
Flemish painters formed in Italy: Bernard van Orley, 1490-1560, a pupil of Raf-feel—Mich. Coxis, of Mechlin, 1497-1552— Fr. Floris, of Antwerp, 1520-70, pupil of Michael Angelo—Matth. and Paul Brill, d. 1584 and 1626, celebrated as landscape paintere—Spranger, b. 1546, at Antwerp.
Germans formed in Italy: Joh. Rotten-hammer, 1564-1608 — Adam Elaheimer, 1574-1620.
The German artists henceforward become decided imitators of the Italians.
1600.
Flourishing period of,the Flemish school.
Forerunners of Rubens: Otto Venius,of Leyden, 1556-1634, settles at Antwerp, after studying at Rome, helps to form Rubens— Albert van Ort, 1557-1611, RubenB’ first master—Peter Breughel, 1569-1625—Sebastian (Old) Frank, 1573-1609.
Hater Paul Bubens, 1577-16*0, Prince and founder of the Flemish school— lived 7 years at the <L of Mantua's court, where he perfected himself after Titian and P. Veronese—the number of his pictures, immense and splendid as they are, said to be above 4000.
Assistants of Rubens: Fr. Sneyders, 1576-1657, animals, Ac.—Jacob Jordaens, 1594-1678—Theod. van Thulden, b. 1607-Era*. Quellen, <L 1678.
Scholars and imitators: Diepenbecke, 1607-75 — Lucas van Uden, 1595-1660, landscapes — Peter v. Mol, 1580-1650 — David Teniers, the elder, 1582-1649—J. van Hock, d. 1650.
Antony wan Bjk, 1599-16*1,
The most spirited and noble of Rubens' pupils; one of the finest portrait painten—he passed his last years in England, where the best of his works are to be found.
Contemporaries with Rubens: Joh Breughel, d. 1642, landscapes—Dan. Seghers, d. 1660, flowers and fruits—Bon. Peters, 1614-52, sea pieces.
Joachim v. Sandrart, of Frankfort, 1606-88, celebrated writer on painting, architecture, and sculpture.
1700.
German Painters: Phil. Rugendas, 1666— 1742, battle pieces—Kupetzky, 1666-1740, portraits ; the Fuseli family once celebrated
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Founder of the Dutch school. Painter and engraver—the Albert Durer of Holland.
Jo. Schoreel, 1495-1590, studies under Alb. Durer and in Italy— J. Hemskerk, 1498-1574, his scholar—Charles van Mander, 1548-1603, painter and author; writes the lives of the Dutch painters — Mich. Miravelt, 1568-1641, above 10,000 portraits.
Ab. Bloemart, 1567-1647.
1600.
Landscape and Animal Painters:
Com. Pollenberg, 1586-1660, fine painter of landscapes, with naked figures full of grace— Van Goyen, 1596-1656 — J. David de Heem, d. 1674, flowers —Evrald van Aelst, 1602-58— Albert Cuyp, b. 1606—Ant. Waterloo—Joh. and And. Both, followers of Claude—Nio. Ber-ghem, 1624-83—Herm. Swane-velt, b. 1620 — Paul Potter, 1625-54 — Bakhuysen, 1631-1709—Adrian van der Velde, 1639-72—Wynants—At. van der Neer, 1619-83, night scenes. »aul Bsmbrandt, 1506-7*, A master of great genius, founds a school of nis own; excels all othere in the management of the chiaro oscuro.
Pupils and imitators: F. Bol, d. 1681—G. Flink, d. 1660 —G. van der Eckhout, d. 1674. Peter von Laar, 1613-74, founder of the Bambocciati school.
Phil. Wouvermans, 1620-1628, landscapes, battle pieces, Ac.
Celebrated for high finishing are Ger. Terburg, <L 1681. Adrian, d. 1685, and Isaac van Ostade, interiors.
David Teniers the younger, <L 1694, bambocciati Gerard Dow, 1613-80, pupil of Rembrandt
Gabriel Metzu, 1615-58—Fr. t>. Miens,1681—Casp. Netscher, 1684—Schalken, d. 1706—Pet. v. Slingelandt, d. 1691—Karel du Jardin, d. 1678 — Jo. Weeninx, d. 1719, animals. Jacob Buyadael, 1635-81, greatest of tne Dutch landscape painters—his pupil Hobbema. Gerhard Lairesse, 1640-1711, writer and painter.
1700.
Adrian v. der Werf, 1659-1722, historical painter; distinguished for the elaborate, ipiniature finish of his pictures.
From this time the Dutch school declines; but
Spanish.
Mostly formed upon the Florentine school, especially Michael Angelo, whose gravity well suits the character of the Spanish nation.
Antonio del Rincon, 1446-1500, private painter to Catherine and Ferdinand, and father of the Spanish painters.
Luis de Vargas, 1502-68, founder of the Seville school.
Cespedes, 1538-1608, learned painter: founds the school of Cordova.
Luis Morales, el divino, 1509-86, paints only sacred subjects, particularly Madonnas—splendid artist.
Juan de Jounes, d. 1596, whom the Spaniards venture to compare with RaffaeL
Juan Fernandes Navarete, d. 1572, acquired the name of the Spanish Titian.
1600.
”"!.ssar
founder of the Madrid school, and of the natural style; his Bambocciati Alonso Cano, 1601-1676, founder of a school at Granada—sculptor and architect
Pacheco, Fr. 1571-1654.
Herrera, Fr. de, 1576-1656.
Zurbaran, Fr., d. 1662.
Paresa, Juan de, d. 1670.
‘ Murillo, 1618-82, the greatest painter of Spain; his style a medium between the unpolished Flemish, and the eleveted and graceful Italian.
—Dietrich (Dietricy), 1712-74.
Oeser, 1717-99, director at Leipsic—Fueger, at Vienna, 4. 1818—Angelika Kauffman, d. 1808—Phil. Hackert, d. 1806—Carstens, 1798—G. Schick, d. 1812—Jot. Kock and C. Reinhart, now in Rome.
Flemings: Geeraerds, d. 1791—Balt. Bes-schey, <L 1776—Hen. Antonissens, d. 1794— Hen. de Cort. d. 1810, Ac.
The art improves in Germany ab. 1810—endeavours of many young artists to revive the study of the old masters.
Peter v. Cornelius, b. 1788, director of the academy at Munich, and his pupils, Kaul-baeh, Hermann, and Zimmerman.
Fr. Overbeck, b. 1789, distinguished painter of scriptural pieces.
Ph. Veit, b. 1793, direct at Frankfort—J. Sehnorr, b. 1794, prof at Leipsic—Hen. Hess, b. 1798, at Dusseldorf—Rottman, b. 1798, landscape painter, Heidelberg.
IF. Sehadow, b. 1789, director of the academy of arts at DUsseldorf, 1826, head of the DUsaeldorf school
Peter Hess, b. 1792.
Mor. Retzsch, outlines to Faust, Schiller, Shakspeare, Ac.
The celebrated J. G. von Muller, b. 1747, and his son, F. v. Muller, d. 1816, engravers of the Madonna di San Sisto, after RaffaeL
Jo. v. Huysum, 1682-1749, are distinguished as flower and fruit painters—P. Velyn, d. 1836.
The historical painter V. Bree, in the style of David— V. Siry, landscapes and animals.
Great merit in portrait and landscape; excels in animals; colouring generally good.
John de Mabeuse, 1492-1562, employed by Henry VIII.: paints the portraits of some of his children.
1498, Ac., Hans Holbein, and various other foreign paintere in England— Zucchero, 1574—H. C. Vroom, Dutchman, designs for tho tapestry in the House of Lords.
Nio. Hilliard, of Exeter, 1547-1619, portraits, q. Eliz. Ac.—Isaac Oliver, d. 1617, portraits.
Sir Nathaniel Bacon, d. 1615.
The art in England is almost confined to portraits.
French.
Formed on the study of the Italian schools falls ivto an affected and theatrical manner after Le Brun, but is again raised into estimation by Vien.
Leonardo da Vinci comes into France 1515, and dies in the arms of Francis I. Andrea del Sarto also spends some years in his service.
Primaticcio executes many beautiful works in France under Francis I.
Rosso (Maitre Roux), 1530, is made painter to Francis I. — Primaticcio also comes to France, and these two masters found the French school—a whole colony of foreign artists reside here.
Cousin, d. about 1611, is-considered the true founder of the French school— painted chiefly on glass.
Freminet, d. 1619.
Rizzi, Fr. 1617-84.
1660 An academy established at Seville.
Coello, a., d. 1692.
Nino de Guevara, d. 1698.
Torres, Mat. d. 1631-1711.
Alfaro, J. de, 1640-1680.
Nunez, Ped. 1640-1700.
Falco, J. Ach. 1651-1711.
1752 Foundation of the Royal Academy of St. Fernando at Madrid.
Xavier Fabre, d. 1837.
1600.
During the reign of Charles I. painting and the fine arts were much favoured at court, and the pictures of foreign masters bought up at a vast price.
Geo. Jameson, the Van Dyke of Scotland, 1586-1614, pupil of Rubens.
Henry Stone (called Old Stone), d. 1653, makes copies from Van Dyke and Italian masters—Young Stone, portraits.
Peter Oliver, 1601-60, portraits.
Peter Paul Rubens
paints the ceiling of the banqueting-house Whitehall. Van Byke in London 1631; dies there 1641.
Will. Dobson, 1610-46.
I. Petitot, a Genoese, paints for Chas. I.—he invents the art of painting on enamel.
Rob. Walker, portraits of O. Cromwell, Ac.
Sami. Cooper, 1609-1672, paints Cromwell and Monck.
Peter Lely, a German, (Peter v. der Faes,) 1618-1641.
Robert Streater, 1624-80, painted the chapel of All Souls* ColL Oxford, except the Resurrection, which is by ThomhilL John Buckshom, John Greenhill, — Davenport, pupils of Lely.
Isaac Fuller, 1672, portraits and allegorical subjects.
John Hoskins, <L 1681.
Rich. Gibson, d. 1690, a dwarf; portraits.
Thos. Flatman, 1633-88.
Will. Vandervelde, sen., d. in England 1693.
Alex. Marshall, a beautiful painter in water colours.
Henry Cook, 1642-1700—J. Riley, d. 1691.
Antonio Verrio, d. in England 1707; paints ceilings at Windsor, Burleigh, Ac.
Michael Wright, d. 1700—Will. Vandervelde* jun., d. England 1707.
Godfrey Hneller,
paints the Beauties at Hampton Court, Ac., d. 1723.
1700.
Jonathan Richardson, d. 1745, artist and author.
James Thornhill, 1677-1734, paints the dome of St, Paul’s, the hall at Blenheim, Ac.
Charles Jervais, d. 1739, pupil of Kneller.
John Wootten, 1765, portraits of animals, foxhunting pieces.
William Hogarth, 1697-176*, a great and original genius—Rake’s Progress, Marriage a-la-mode, Harlot’s Progress, Ac.
Francis Hayman, d. 1776.
Sami. Scott, d. 1772.
Biohard Wilson, 1714-82, styled the English Claude, studies in Italy—landscapes. John Boydell, 1719-1804, engraver, great encourager of painting—his Shakspeare gallery, Ac.
Joshua Beynolds, 1723-92,
England's first great artist, and first president of the Royal Academy—his Lectures on Painting.
Geo. Stubbes, 1724-1806, celebrated for his horses.
John Mortimer, d. 1779, Robbers, Ac.—great strength of conception and boldness of execution.
Thos. Gainsborough, 1727-88, landscapes and portraits.
Geo. Romney, 1734-1802, history and portraits.
David Allan, of Edinburgh, d. 1796, landscapes.
Benjamin West,
an American, 1738-1820, settles in England, becomes historical painter to Geo. III., and president of the Royal Academy.
James Barry, 1741-1806, painter of the six pictures in the Adelphi.
William Hamilton, 1751-1801, historical Ac.
Sir Francis Bourgeois, d. 1811, battles, Ac. Gives a valuable collection of pictures to the Dulwich College.
John Opie, 1761-1807, port, and miscel. subjects.
George Moreland, d. 180*,
celebrated painter of rural IT
Henry Fuseli, 1741-1825, excelled in wild, romantic, and supernatural subjects; illustrator of Dante, Milton, and Shakspeare.
Sir Thomas Bawrenoe, 1769-1830,
president of the Royal Academy.
Henry Tresham, d. 1814—Henry Edridge, d. 1821—Singleton Copley, (father of Lord Lyndhuret), <L 1815—Will. Owen, d. 1825—IF. Red. Bigge, d. 1828—James Northcote, d. 1831, history—J. Jackson, d. 1831—Ed. Cooper, d. 1833—R. Bennington, d. 1828-r-47. Dawe, d. 1829.
Celebrated living painters: IFUW*, Hilton, Martin, Landseer, Cooper, Etty, Haydon, Turner, Shee, Howard, qo.
Engravers.
Wen. Hollar, 1607-77-IFm. Faithome, d. WO—John Pine, 1690-1756 —Simon Grebelm, 1661-1732— Geo. Vertue, 1684-1756, author of Anecdotes of Painting in England— Thos. Worlidge, d. 1766 —IFm. Ryiand, 1732-83— IFm. Woollett, 1735-85 — Sir Robt. Strange, d. 1792— Joseph Strutt, d. 1802, engraver and antiquary; his Sports and Pastimes, Dictionary of Engravers, Ac. IFm. Sharpe, 1740-1824-771 Bewick, d. 1828, the great improver of wood engraving.
Eminent living Engravers: Cousins, Bromley, Heath, Finden, Le Keux, Pye, $c.
Wood Engravers: Branston, Jackson, Thompson, qc.
Simon Vouet, 1582-1641, teacher of Le Seur, Le Bran, Ac.
Yleholas Poussin, 1894-1663,
distinguished by rich and noble invention-scriptural subjects.
Caspar Bughet
(called Caspar Poussin), Poussin’s friend and pupil, landscape painter, celebrated for the beauty of his scenery, and correctness of his perspective.
Claude Lorraine, 1600-1682, the greatest of all landscape painters— lives at Rome.
Le Valentin, d. 1632, Seb. Bourdon, d. 1671, both in the style of Caravaggio— Laurence de la Hire, d. 1656—James Blanchard, d. 1638, called the French Titian.
Flourishing period of the art in France.
■ustaehe le Seur, 1617-85,
the greatest French artist of his time— rich in design and composition. Charles le Bran, 1619-90,
founder of the French Academy of Painting, 1648—large and noble compositions.
Pierre Mignard le Romain, 1610-95, rival of Le Bran.
Influence of French tragedy upon painting: dramatic effect the great aim.
La Fosse, 1640-1716, pupil of Le Bran. Bon Boullongne, d. 1717—Louis, his brother, d. 1733.
J. Jouvenet, d. 1717—Santerre, d. 1717.
Noel Coypel, 1628-1707—Antoine, his son, 1661-1722.
1700.
Jacques le Bourauignon, d. 1676, Guillaume, his brother, d. 1679—Parrocel, d. 1704, battle pieces.
Vivien, d. 1735, family pictures— Rigaud, d. 1743, portraits; the French Van Dyke.
' Decline of the art.
Fran, le Maine, 1688-1737, best painter of his day.
J. Bapt. Vanloo, 1684-1745, mostly portraits.
Fran. Boucher, 1704-70, marks the complete decline of the art by his extreme affectation and wretched colouring; yet he was celebrated in his day.
Jos. Vemet, 1714-89, sea pieces—he is the first to return to nature.
Flan, 1715-1809, teacher of David, the Nestor of the modern style.
Greuze, 1726-1805, representations of private life, Ac.
Engravers: Edelink, 1707, Le Bran's pictures—IFWfc, 1717-1808.
Regnault, d. 1829, David's pupil, and founder of a second school— Vincent, d. 1816, founds a third.
Pupils of David: DrortfaW, d. 1788 —Gros, d. 1835—Ingres—Girodet, d. 1825.
Pupils of Regnault:	Guerin—
Lefevre.
Fr. Gerard, 1770-1837, pupil of David— Charles Vemet, 1758-1836, and his son Horace, b. 1789, all paint battles gained by Napoleon, Ac.
Paul de la Roche, the present great historical painter—L. Robert—De la Croix, Ac.
Lessors.
Schnetz.
A. Scheffer.
a
b
70 Table xxiv.	SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLES.	a. c. 1792 to 1839.
Modern Philosophy.	Physics.	Historical Science.
Second Period :—From Kant to the present times. I. German Philosophy. 1.	Critical or Transcendental Idealism of Kant. *qphy, which, by inoeiiigatina the origin and limits qf human knowledge, revives and extends the spirit of research. The aim of Kant's system Is to lead reason to the true knowledge of Itself—it is established npon the principle that there is a free reason, Independent of all experience and sensation. Followers of Kant, who hare formed new systems: C. L. Reinhold, d. 1823—Bouterweck, d. 1828*—Fries —Krug—Herbart—J. S. Beck, $0. Chief opponents: Herder—Schulze, d. 1833—Ha-mann, 1730-88. Ac. In English we hare Nitsch's General and Introductory View of Kant’s Principles concerning Man, the World, and the Deity, Lond. 1806—The Principles of Critical Philosophy, selected from the works of Kant, Lond. 1797—Willich's Elements of the Critical Philosophy, 1798—Wirgman's Principles of the Transcendental Philosophy, Ac., 1824—also translations of his most important works. 2.	J. G. Fichte’s, 1762-1814, Scientific Theory: fonnded npon ego and rum-ego—idealism carried to the most extravagant pitch. Principal works: Wissenschaftslehre, 1794—Der Anweisung sum seli$. Leben, 1806—Der Reden d. deutsche Nation. Fichte’s rhapsodies drew upon him the chaige of atheism, but he enjoyed a high character for morality and patriotism. 3. Schellino’s, b. 1755, theory of Absolute Identity. His system Identifies God and the soul with nature, and alms at nulling transcendental philosophy with physiology. It has bad a vast influence npon the study of natural history, mythology, history, and the theory of teste. Followers, naturalists: Oken—Krause—Trailer— Solger, d. 1819, and numerous others. C. G. Bardili, d. 1806, endeavours to make the Absolute Identity the basis of a system founded on thought, and to constitute logic the source of real knowledge. 4. Philosophy qf Sentiment and Belief. F.	H. Jacobi’s, 1743-1804, Theory of Belief: opposes the critical and dogmatical systems, and advances a theory fonnded upon the notion of an Internal sense, and upon beliefand mysticism. His principal works were ‘ Letters on Splnosa/ 1785—on David Hume, 1787—' Of Godly Things,' 1811. His principal followers: v. Weiller, d. 1826-Koep-pen, prof, at Munich—Schleiermacher, d. 1834— J. Salat, and others. G.	W. F. Hegel, 1770-1831, founder of a system of Absolute Idealism. Mystics who held to natural philosophy, but rejected the doctrine of Identity: Nooedis, the poet, d. 1801—Jac. Wagner—Eschen-mayer—Steffens — Schubert—Jos. Gorrei— Fr. v. Boeder—Windischmann—Fred. v. Schlegel, d. 1829— Molitor, of Frankfort, and others. Reason, as applied to Revealed Religion, and Free-will, as influenced by Divine Grace, have been handled by Kahler, Schleiermacher, De Witte, Bockshammer, and many others. The tendency of philosophical inquiry in Germany has been to abase Revelation, and exalt Reason. II. Philosophers of France, Italy, frc. French metaphysicians, chiefly empirics: Dege-rando—St. Pierre—Destutt de Tracy, his4 Iddologie,’ 1804. Theologians: Le Maistre, d. 1821—Bonald—De Lamennais, b. 1781,4 Paroles d’un Croyant,’ 1834, Ac. Eclectics: Royer Collard, b. 1763, follower of the Scotch school. Victor Cousin, b. 1792, translator of Plato, and the first who introduced the German philosophy into France. III. British Philosophers, $•<?. Dugald Stewart, 1753-1828, the celebrated follower of Locke and Reid. Thomas Browne, 1778-1820, opposer of Reid: excels in the beauty of his style—in ethics, a follower of Bp. , Butler. William Daley, d. 1808. and his followers: whose principal aim is to prove the existence of God from organised nature, and to contemplate his attributes in his works: The Bridgewater Treatises: by Kidd—Chalmers —Whewell—Sir C. Bell—Roget—Buckland—Kirby— Prout. Jeremy Bentham, d. 1832, utilitarian system. Sir James Mackintosh, d. 1832, Hist, of Ethical Philosophy. S. T. Coleridge, d. 1884, Aids to Reflection, Ac. Thomas Taylor, Platonist, translator o£ and commentator upon, the works of Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient philosophers. Living writers: Sir William Hamilton—Dr.Whateley —Hampden—Sewell, prof, of Moral Philos, at Oxford Abercrombie—Lord Brougham.	Physiology becomes the moving principle in the study of Natural Philosophy. In Germany, after Kant and Schelling, the notion prevails that all exterior organisation must spring from an interior dynamic— from life. Tr. W. Job. BobeUlnr, b. 17781 founder of a new school of natural philosophy: a sort of pantheism, identifying the deity with nature—his principal scholars and follewen were: Ludw. Oken, the celebrated founder of the first complete system qf nature. Steffens — Schubert. C. Fr. v. Kielmeyer, b. 1765, the greatest living German physiologist Wilbrand, prof, at Giessen. Natural Historians : George Cuvier, 1769-1832, the greatest zoologist of the 18th century—comparative anatomist, geologist, etc. Baron Humboldt, b. 1769—Sir Joseph Banks, d. 1820, naturalists and scientific travellers. Other Zoologists : Foreigners: Pallas, b. at Berlin—Geoffroy St. Hillaire, b. 1773 —Nutterer of Vienna—Illiger of Berlin—Lesson of Paris. British : Vigors—Horsfield—Bennett—Hamilton Smith—George Shaw, d. 1812—Swamson—Jar dine—Jenyns—Yarrell, £0. -Ornithologists: Bonaparte (prince of Musignano)—Demurest—Vieillot, d. 1828 —Temmmck of Leyden—Meyer—Wolf, $c. British: Latham, d. 1837—Montague, and others, Selby and Gould, who excel in pictorial illustration. U. S. of America: Wilson, d. 1813—Orde—Audubon, $o. Entomologists : Foreigners. Bonelli—Dejean—Boisduval—Clairville—Latreille Esper—Fabricius, 1742-1807, pupil of Linn.—Gravenhorst— Huber of Geneva (the blind historian of the bees)—Lamarck— Ochsenheimer, £c. British : Kirby and Spence—Hope—Curtis—Stephens—West-wood—Macleay—Leach, <S(C. Ichthyologists : Bloch—Agassiz—Lacepede—Valenciennes—Yarrell, Ac. Comparative Anatomists : British: John Banter, d. 1793, founder of modern comp, anat.—Martyn—Sir Ev. Home—Monro—Kidd of Oxford— Owen, and others— Pritchard's Physical Hist, of Mankind. Foreigners: Audouin—Cloquet—Geo. and Fred. Cuvier—Leon-Dvfour—Dumeril—Edwards—Camper, in Holland. Call, d. 1828, and Spnrnhelm, founders of Modern Phrbkolooy. Botanists: Jussieu, founder of the Natural System, now generally adopted : it is followed by Ventenat, in his 4 Rcgne Vegetal.’—Desfon-taines, in the 4 Jardin des Plantes’ at Paris—by Decandolle— Mirbel—Richard. English: W. Curtis, d. 1799—Sir J. Smith, d. 1828—Brown— Lindley, prof, at Lond. Univ.—Hooker—Greville—Turner— Sowerby—Dr. Daubeny, prof, of Botany and Chemistry at Oxford Baxter, Oxford, British Flowering Plants—Rev. J. S. Hens low, prof at Cambridge. Mineralogy : Hauy (chrystallography), d. 1822—Fried. Mohs—Prof. Jameson —Dr. Kidd, $c. Geology : Dr. Dockland, Prof, at Oxford—Sedgewick, Prof, at Camb. —Murchison—Conybeare—Philips—Mantell — Fitton—Mam-melt, and others. Foreigners: Breislac of Milan, d. 1826—Leop. v. Bush of Prussia—D'Aubuisson, Brongniart, Bout, at Paris—and others. Chemists : Ant. Xianr. Dawolsier, 1783-98, of Paris, founder of the antiphlogistic system and modern chemistry. Great progress of Chemistry from the time of Lavoisier. French: Fouroroy, d. 1809—Guyton de Morveau, d. 1816— Berthollet, d. 1822—Vauguelin, d. 1829—Chaptal, d. 1832— Thenard, b. 1777—Lussac—a\\ of Paris. English: Black,A. 1799—Priestley,A. 1804—Cavendish,A. 1810 Sir Humphrey Davy, 1779-1829, Presld. of the Royal Soc., one of the greatest cbemisu of modern times—Dr. Wollaston, 1766 -1828—Parkes, d. 1816—Dalton—Turner—Jac. SerseUns, b. 1778, the greatest of living chemists. Living English chemists: Dr. Faraday—Thomson—Daubeny, of Oxford—Graham, <Jc. Physics : Al. Galvani, 1737-98, the discoverer of galvanism—Alex. Voltai 1745-1826, Voltaic Battery. This discovery gives a new impulse to the progress qf natural science in general. Oersted, prof, at Copenhagen, Faraday, director of the Royal Laboratory at London, discoverers of electro-magnetism. Biot,4 Traitd de Physique, 1816, Arago, both of Paris—Chladni, 1756-1829. Astronomy, Mathematics, Ac. : Lagrange, 1755-18\3—Jeaurat, 1753-1803—Monge, 1746-1818, favourite of Napoleon, Statique, 1788—Delambre, 1749-1822, Traitd d’Astron., Hist, de I’Astron.—Da Place, 1789-1827, his celebrated ‘ Mdcanitjue Celeste,’ 1799—Carnot, d. 1823— Piazzi, 1746-1826, of Naples, discoverer of the planet Ceres, 1801—Harding, prof, at Gbttingen, discoverer of Juno, 1804— Olbers, physician of Bremen, discoverer of Pallas, 1802, and of Vesta, 1807—Gaus, prof, at Gottingen, ‘Theoria Motus Cor-porum Celestium’—Enke, Berlin — Sir Wm. Hersohel, 1738-1822, discoverer of Georgium Sidus, 1781—Charles Hutton, 1737-1823—Nevil Maskelyne, 1732-1811, institutor of ' nautical almanacks—Sam. Vince, A. 1821—F.Masseres,A. 1824— Wm. Playfair, d. 1823, inventor of linear arithmetic—Bowditch, American translator of La Place—Sir John Herschel—Prof. Airy of Cambridge—Whewell—Babbage—Lardner—Rigaud— —Patch—Baden Powell— Walker—Johnson—Bland—Bridge— Lloyd—Maddy—Snowball—Hind—Young—Wright, S[c. Physicians : Bichat, d. 1802, of Paris, founder of modern medicine by his great work4 Anatomic Generale,’ 1801—Peter John Cabanis, 1756-1807 R. T. Laenneo, d. 1826—Sam. Hahnemann, b. 1755, at Meissen, founder of the homSopathic system, and antagonist of the Hippocratic system which has prevailed for twenty-two centuries. English: Thomas Beddowes, d. 1803, author of4 Hygeia’—Wm. Hunter, 1718-83—Matt. Baillie, d. 1823—Ed. Jennet, d. 1823, vaccination—John Abemethy, 1765-1831, $c. Sir Astley Cooper—Sir Benj. Brodie—Dr. Thomson— Dr. Elliotson—Sir Charles Bell, £c. 1823 Foundation of the Society qf German Naturaliets and Physicians by Oxen—the British Society, founded upon its model, hu met every year since 1831.	Since Voltaire. I. French Historians. I.	Universal and Ancient History: Volney, d. 1820, Ruins of Empires. Ferrand, d. 1825, Spirit of History. Segur, the elder, d. 1831. Levesque, Hist Romaine, 1807. Chateaubriand. In this period falls the compilation of the Biographic Universelle, 52 vols.—the Resumes Historiques, <%c. 2. Modem History: Cl. Carl, de Ruhlibres, d. 1791, his celebrated Hist, de l’Anarchie de Polognc, Ac. Koch, d. 1813, Hist, des Traitds de Paix, and Tableau des Revol. de l’Europe. Guizot (the statesman)—Aug. Thierry, b. 1788—Thiers—Dulaure—Barante— Count Daru—Sismondi—Flassan, $c. 3. Contemporary History and Memoirs of the Revolution, the Empire, the Restoration, and July Revolution: Rabant, d. 1793, Prdcis de l’Hist de la Revol.: continued by Ch. Lacretelle, who also wrote, Hist, de France pendant les Guerres de Religion. Mignet, his celebrated Abr^gd de 1’HisL de la Revol., 1824. Thiers, the ex-minister, Hist de la Revol., 1826, the principal work of this period. Various memoirB relating to the Revolution by BaiUy—Bouille—Gohier— Mad. Roland—Louvet — Camille Desmoulins — Barbaroux — Thibaudeau — Considerations sur la Revol., par Mad. de Slael, fyc. The Hist. Parlamentaire de la Revol., with treatises and official documents, 1833. Hapoleom his Memoirs dictated at St. Helena to Gouigaud and Montholon. Norvius, Vie de Napoleon, 1825. Segur, Hist, de Napoleon pendant l’annde 1812. Memorial de St. Helena, by Las Cases—Memoirs of Bourrienne—of Savary— Rapp—the duke of Abrantes, and others. Capefigue, Mem. d’un Homme d’etat, and several other important works. Sarrans, Lafayette et la Revolution de 1830. II.	English Historians. 1.	Ancient History: Jacob Bryant, d. 1804, on Class. Antiq. H. H. Milman, Hist, of the Jews. Hales, Chronology and Antiquities. John Gillies, d. 1836, Hist, of Greece. W. Mitford, d. 1827, Hist, of Greece. Fynes Clinton, Fasti Hellenici. Rev.C. Thirlwall—Keight ley, Hist, of Greece, Rome, England, Ac. Mythology, Ac. Rev. T. Arnold, Hist, of Rome. A. Murphy,A. 1819, Transl. of Tacitus. James Rennell, d. 1830, Geography of Herodotus, Ac. Wilkinson, Antiquities of the Egyptians, Ac. 2.	Modem History: W. Belsham, d. 1827, Hist, of England. John Bigland, d. 1832, Letterson Hist. Robert Bissett, d. 1805, Life of George III. and of Burke. John Miller, d. 1801, History of British Government. Sir James Mackintosh, d. 1832, History of England. Coxe, d. 1821, Memoirs of Walpole, of the Duke of Marlborough, of the Kings of Spain, and House of Austria. Sir Pros. Palgrave. Lord J. Russell. Hallom. Sharon Turner. Mngard. Sir Harris Nicolas, <jfc. John Brand, d. 1806, Popular Antiquities. 1811 Institution of the Record-Commission for the publication of historical documents, chronicles, Ac. Bryan Edwards, d. 1800, History of the West Indies. John Malcolm, d. 1833, History of Persia, India, Ac. T. Maurice, d. 1824, Indian Antiquities. James Mill, d. 1836, Hist, of British India. Will. Roscoe, d. 1831, Life of Lorenzo de Medici and Leo X., Ac. Dr. Russell, d. 1794, Hist of Modern Europe. Henry Hallam, Hist, of the Middle Ages, Constitutional Hist of England, Literature of Europe, Ac. Nath. Wraxall, d. 1831, Hist, of France. T. S. Raffles, Hist of Java. R. Sonthey, History of Brazil, Peninsular War, Ac. Alison, History of the French Revolution, 6 vols. 8vo., and Modem Europe. Dr. Mdlar's Hist. Philosophically Illustr.—S.A. Dunham, Hist, of Germ. Emp. The histories in Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, Ac. The Annual Register, begun by Dodsley.—The Asiatic Register, Ac. Biography: Dr. And. Kippis, d. 1795, Biog. Britan.—Jo. Macdiarmid, Lives of British Statesmen—Alexander Chalmers, d. 1834, Biographical Dictionary. Voyages, Travels, Geography, Ac.: John Pinkerton, d. 1826, Geography, 2 vols., Collection of Voyages and Travels, 18 vols. 4to.—Josiah Conder, The British Traveller, 30 vols.—Dr. Ed. D. Clarke, d. 1822, Travels in Various Parts of Europe, 11 vols. 8vo.—James Bruce, d. 1794—T. E. Bowdich—Hugh Clapperton, d. 1827—Burckhardt, d. 1832, Travels in Africa, mostly to explore the Nile and Joliba—Will. Coxe, d.1828, travels and history—Capt. Basil Hall, Travels in America, Ac .—Capt. Parry, Capt. Ross, $c. Voyages to the North Pole, and in search of a N. W. Passage. III. Historians of the U. S. of North America. David Ramsay, Hist, of the American Revol. 1789—Marshall, Life of General Washington, 1807—George Tucker, Life of Jeffereon, 1837—Bancroft, The History of the U. S. IV.	German Historians. 1. Ancient History: Beeren, prof, at GSttingen, History of the States of Antiquity, European State-Bystem, Ac., translated and published at Oxford. Anoillon, Tableau des Revolutions, 1803, Ac.—Bredow, d. 1814, Tables of Univ. History, &c.—Rotteck, Weltgeschichte, 1812—Schiosser, Weltgeschichte, mS—Saalfeld, d. 1834, General Hist, of Mod. Times. The Dresden Pocket Library of Historians—the collection of Staaten Ges-c h i c h t e, by Heeren and Uckert—(Dr. Lappenberg's Hist, of England—Pfister's Germany, Ac.) Wlebulur's Roman History: the firat two vols. translated by Hare and Thirlwall ; an epitome of the 3 vols. by Travers Twiss. 2. Modem History: Martens, d. 1821, Grundriss d. Europ. Staatspandel—Archenholz, d. 1812, Gesch. der 7 J. Kriegs, 1798, Ac.—Posselt, <L 1804, Hist. Taschenbuch fur d. neuste Gesch. u. a. Living writers: K. ad Menzel—Kohlrausch—Wolfgang Menzel— WUken— Joh. Voigt—Zschokke— Von Hammer, £c. Memoirs: Dohm, d. 1820—Massenbach—Gagem,$c. Literary history: Eichhom—Wackier, Sp. Foundation of the Frankfort Society for Ancient German Hietory, 1810, by V. Stein. V.	Spanish Historians. Masdeu, Hist. Critica de Espanna, 1783-1802—L'Lorente, d. 1823, Hist, de la Inquisicion, Ac.—Conde, Hist, de los Arabes en Espanna, 1821 —Sempere, Monarchic Espagnole, 1825. VI.	Italian Historians. Luigi Bossi, Storia Ant. e Mod. d’ltalia, 1819—Botta, Storia d’ltalia—Coppi, Annali d’ltalia dal 1750: a continuation of Muratori—Cicognara's work upon the History of Sculpture, 1813, and Lanzi's upon Painting, 1822. VII.	Swedish Historians. Geijer, editor of the Script. Rerum Suecicarum—Lunablad, Suensk Plultarch. VIII.	Polish Historians. Nlemcewicz,' the poet, History of Sigismund III.—Joach. Lelewel, the most celebrated Polish historian. IX.	Russian Historians. Nikolai Karamsin, d. 1826, Hist, of Russia—Otto's Hist, of Russian Literature: translated by Cox, Oxford, 1839. Geography and Statistics: Maltebrun, d. 1826, at Paris—Stein, <L 1830, at Berlin, Statistics—Ritter, Uckert, $c., Geographers. Ethnography: Adr. Balbi, author of Atlas Ethnographique, 1826, Ac.
¥
C
GENEALOGICAL TABLES.
71
Edward
the Black Prince, d. 1376.
34 Richard II., dep. 1399, d. 1400.
I. KINGS OF ENGLAND.
Z. Anglo-Saxon and Danish Kings.
1 Eobert the Great, first king of all England, 827, d. 836.
2 Ethelwolp, d. 856.
3 Ethelbald, d. 860. 4 Ethelbert, d. 866. 5 Ethelred, d. 871. 6 Alfred the Great, d. 901.
7 Edward the Elder, d. 924.
8 Athelstan, d. 940.	9 Edmund, d. 946.	10 Edred, d. 995.
Harold Blaa-tand, k. of Denmark.
15 Sveyn, k. of Eng. and Den., d. 1014.
I
18 Canute, k. of Eng. and Den., d. 1035.
11 Edwin, d. 959.	12 Edgar, d. 975.
13 Edward the Martyr, d. 978.	14 & 16 Ethelred, d. 1016.
17 Edmund II., Ironside, d. 1017.	21 Edward III. the Confessor, d. 1066.
II. HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK.
Welf, or Guelf, lord of Altorf in Suabia, about 800,
founder of the fiunily.
Cunegunda, heiress of the Welfs, m. Azo, marg. of Este.
19 Harold I., d. 1040. 20 HARDicANUTE,d. 1042. Edward, d. 1017.
Edgar Atheling.
Godwin, earl of Kent, d. 1053.
22 Harold II.,defeated and slain by William the Conqueror, 1066.
Welf I., duke of Bavaria, 1079. Fulco, founder of the House of Este Modena.
ZZ. Norman Kings, 1066-1154. 23 William the Conqueror, 1066-87.
24 William II. Rufus, d. 1100.
25 Henry I. d. 1134.
Matilda,
m. 1st to the emp. Henry V., no issue, 2nd to Geoffrey Plantagenet, c. of Anjou.
Adelaide, d. 1137, m. Stephen, c. of Blois.
26 Stephen, d. 1154.
Welf II. Hemy the Black.
Henry the Proud,
acquires Saxony, Brunswick, and Hanover, by his m. with Gertrude, d. and heiress of the emp. Lothaire II., 1127.
Henry the Lion, d. 1195, d. of Saxony and Bav.
ZZZ. Bouse of Plantagenet, 1154-1399. 27 Henry II. d. 1189, m. Eleanor.
28 Richard Cceur de Lion,	Geoffrey,
d. 1199.	|
Arthur, murd. by his UDcle John.
29 John, Lackland, d. 1216.
30 Henry III. d. 1272.
Otho IV. emp. till 1215. William Longsword,
Otho the Child, first duke of Brunswick,
(Lunenburg, Brunsw., Calfenburg, Grubenhagen,
----------------------------------->	Gottingen,) 1235-1252,
Richard, e. of Cornwall, emp. of Germ.	founder of the elder House of Brunswick.
31	Edward I. Longshanks, d. 1307.	Edmund the Humpbacked, e. of Lancaster.
32	Edward II., d. 1327, m. Isabella of Fiance. Blanche, his great grandd., 1st heiress of the rights of Lancaster,
|	m. John of Gaunt, 3rd son of Edward III.
33	Edward III., d. 1377.
1286 Hemy the Wonderful, head of the Grubenhagen branch—ends 1596.
William Lionel, d. of Clarence, d. 1368. John of Gaunt, d. of Lane., m. Blanche of Lane.
I	I
IV. Bouse of Lanoaster, | Red Rose, 1399-1460.
Philippa,
m. Edward Mortimer.
Roger Mortimer, decl. heir to the crown 1385, d. 1399.
Anne Mortimer, m. Richard, e. of Camb., son of Edmund, d. of York.
V. Bouse of York, f White Rose, 1460-85. 38 Edward IV7., d. 1483.	40 Richard III., d. 1485.
Edward, d. of York, d. 1402.
I
John Beaufort, nat. son,d. 1440.	35 Henry IV.
John Beaufort, d. of 36 Henry V., d. 1422, m.
Somerset, d. 1444. Catharine of France, who
|	|	afterwards m.
Margaret Beaufort, 37 Henry VI., Owen Tudor, second heiress	till 1460.	I
of the house of Lancaster, marries Edmund Tuaor, e. of Richmond.
Richard, e. of Cambridge, m, Anne Mortimer, heiress of the rights of Lionel, d. of Clarence, d. 1415.
Ernest the Rich, head of the Gottingen branch—ends 1463.
Magnus Torquatos, inherits, after 1368, Lunenb.,d. 1373, founder of the middle House of Brunsw. Lunenburg.
Ernest of Zell, d. 1542, introd. the Reformation, founder of the younger House of Brunsw. Lunenburg.
VZ. Bouse of Tudor, |
03.
39 Edward V., d. 1483.
Elizabeth of York, marries 41 Henry VII., who unites the Roses, d. 1509.
Lunenburg branch, (Zell and Hanover,) William, d. 1592.
Margaret, m. James IV., (Stuart,)
king of Scotland.	,--------------
|	43 Edward VI.,
James V., k. of Scotland,	d. 1553.
d. 1542.
Mary, queen of Scots, beheaded, 1587.
VIZ. Bouse of | Stuart, 1603-89.
45 James I., (VI. of Scotland,) 1603-25.
42 Henry VIII., d. 1547.
44 Mary, d. 1558.
45 Elizabeth, d. 1603.
Mary, m. 1st Louis XIL k. of France—2nd Ch. Brandon, duke of Suffolk.
Frances Brandon, m. Henry Grey,d. of Suffolk.
George, d. 1641.
Lady Jane Grey, beheaded 1554.
( The heir of this line is the present duke of Buckingham, in right of his mother.)
46 Charles I., beheaded 1649.
47 Charles II., Mary, m. Will. II., 48 James II., d. 1685.	p. of Orange. abdicates 1689.
49 William III., m. 49 Mary, d. 1695,	50 Anne, James Edw.,
d. 1702, without issue.	1702-14. pretender.
Elizabeth, d. 1661, m. Frederic, Elector Palatine.
Sophia, declared heiress to the throne, 1701, m. Ernest Augustus, first Elector of Hanover, d. 1698.
vni. Bouse of | Hanover, since 1716.
51 George 1.1714, d. 1727.
Wolfenbuttel branch, (d. of Brunswick,) Hemy, d. 1598.
Augustus, d. 1666.
Antony, d. 1714.
Charles I., d. 1780.
Charles Will. Ferd., publ. of the Manifesto, killed at Overstadt, 1806.
Fred, \tilliam, succeeds to Oels, 1805, killed at Waterloo, 1815.
III. HOUSE OF WETTIN IN SAXONY, BELGIUM, COBURG, &c.
Charles Edward, d. 1788, at Rome.
Henry of York, Cardinal, the last Stuart, d. 1807.
52 George II., d. 1760. Fred, ilewis, d. 1751.
Charles II., under the guardianship of England till 1823-exp. 1880.
William, obtains Oels— succeeds to Brunswick, 1830.
Augusta Frederica, d. 1808,	53 George III., d. 1820, Will, Henry, d. of Gloat,
Conrad the Great, c. of Wettin, marg. of Meissen, d. 1190. m. Chas. Will. Ferd. d. of Brunswick, m. Charlotte of Meckbg.-Strelitz.	d. 1805.	J
Hemy Fred., d. of Cumberland, d. 1790.
Otho the Rich, d. 1180.
tert Dietrich, d. 1221, m. Jutta of Hesse, d. 1239. the Proud, |
d. 1109. Henry, 1289 landg. of Thuringia, d. 1281.
Albert, d. 1314, m. Marg., d. of Fred. II.
Frederic with the Bitten Cheeh, d. 1324.
Frederic the Grace, d. 1340.
Frederic the Valiant, d. 1380.
1	Frederic the Warlike, 1st elect of Sax., d. 1423.
2	Frederic the Meek.
54 George Frederic, IV., d. 1830. d. of I	.York,
Charlotte d. 1827. Caroline, b. 1796, m. Leopold, p. of
Saxe-Coburg, d. 1817.
55 Edw. Augustus, Ernest	Augustus Fred.,
William d. of Kent, Augustus, d. of Sussex, IV.,	d. 1820, m. d. ofCumb., b. 1773, m.
k. 1830, Victoria, pss. of b. 1771, k. Lady Augusta d. 1837. Saxe-Coburg. of Hanover, Murray,
1837.	(the m. annulled).
56 Victoria, 1837,
b. May 24, 1819,
Adolphus Fred., d. of Cambridge, b. 1774, m. Caroline, pss. of
Hesse Cassel.
I
George, George Matilda George Augusta Frederic, Augustus, Charlotte, William, Caroline, b. 1819. b. 1794. b. 1801. b. 1819. b. 1822. * * * ♦#**##***•*«
Six Princesses,
1	Charlotte Aug. Matilda, d. 1828, q. of Wirtemb.
2	AugustaSophia,b.l768. 8 Elizabeth, b. 1770, m.
Aug. Fred., of H.-Hom.
4	Mary, b. 1776, m. d. of
Gloucester, 1816.
5	Sophia, b. 1777,
6	Amelia,b.1783,d.1811. «*««***
Ernest Branch.
3 Ernest, elector of Thuringia, d. I486.
4 Fred, the Wiee, (the friend of Luther,) protest., d. 1929.
9 John, d. 1932.
8 Frederic the Magnanimous, loses the electorate 1947.
Albert Branch.
Albert, Meissen, d. 1900.
Henry the Pious, protesL,d. 1941.
7 Maurice, elector 1947, d. 1993.	8 Auoustus, d. 1988.
John Fred. II., Coborg, See., extinct 1038.	John William, Thuringian Branch.
9 Christian I., d. 1991.
A Itenburg Branch, extinct 1838.	1973 Weimar Branch, John, d. 1009, obtains Golba, Eisenach.
U Christian II., d. 1811.	11 John Gboror I.,d. 1898(30 Year*’ War.)
Weimar Branch: William, d. 1082.
I,
Gotha Branch: Ernest the Pious, d. 1679.
John Ernest II., d. 1883. Meiningen: Bernard, d. 1708. Hildburghaueen: Ernest, d. 1719. Saaljield, 1090 Coburg Saal.: John Em., d. 1729-
12	John George II., d. 1680.
13	John George III., d. 1601.
John Ernest III., d. 1707.
, I
Anton. Ulrich, d. 1763.
Ernest Ang. Const., d. 1798,
, _il ‘	"	‘	"
Weimar
Charles Ang., gr. d. of Saxe Weimar, 1819-28.
Charles Fred., m. Maria Paul., sister to Nicholas, emp. of Rnssla.
.........B.________________ Adelaide, ________________________________________,
his wife, Anna Amelia, regent 1798-79, who made dowager	reigning d. of Saxe Meiningen, Frederic, d. 1834, becomes Ernest reigning	-
"" the chief teat of German literature. qneen of Inherited, 1828, Hilbnrghansen	1826, Saxe A Itenburg.	duke, becomes, 1828, duchess _ I
1	Gt. Britain.	h««i*.m	i	""	" ' ~--rm
Bernhard Eric Freund, ogd.otSaieMe' ' ed, 1828, Hilbnr and Saalfeld.
Ernest Fred. I., d. 1724. Charles Ernest, d, 1749. Francis Jos., d. 1764. Ernest Fred. II., d. 1749.
Ernest fled. III., d. 1780.
14 John Geo. 19 Fred. Ado. I., 1733 tuof Poland, 1697. 1	•	IV., d. 1694.	I
Ernest Fred., d. 1809.	1« Fred. Auo. II., h. gf Poland,d. 1783.
Fred. Ant, d. 1809.
17 Fred. Chbistian, d. 1783.
Victoria, Ferd. Geo.,
Leopold,m.' 'is (1) Fred. 19 (2) Antony, Maximilian, pr. Charlotte Aug. HI., d. IB36. _l
ap jjrssi ji sm. *• «sr *4sas4r
J- !. by m. with the m. Louisa of *---------- France.
reigning duke. Ernest,	Albert, m. Victoria,	~
hered.pr. b.Ang.28,1819. q.ofGtB.	*
72
GENEALOGICAL TABLES OF
IV. MAYORS OF THE PALACE, DUKES AND PRINCES OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE LATER MEROVINGIANS.
S. Arnold, bishop of Metz, mayor of the palace to Dagobcrt I., d. 640.
Anchises, mayor of the palace to Sigebert II., d. 674.
Pepin Heristel, mayor of the palace of Austrasia 687, duke and prince of the Franks, d. 714.
Grimoald, mayor of the palace of Neustria, murd. 714. Charles Martel, duke of Austrasia, mayor of the palace, d. 741. Thendoald, mayor of the palace 714, deposed 715. Carloman, duke and prince of the Franks, obtains Austrasia, 741, d. 755.
Pepin the Short, duke and prince of the Franks, re-unites the monarchy 746, d. 768.
Charlemagne, king of Neustria 768, reunites the monarchy 771, king of the Franks and Lombards 774, crowned emperor at Rome 800, d. 814.
Carloman, king of Austrasia, d. 771, Pepin.
V. KINGS OF FRANCE. HOUSE. OF BOURBON-ANJOU IN SPAIN, NAPLES, PARMA, LUCCA. HOUSE OF BRAGANZA IN PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL.
XX. Carlovlngrlana. Charlemagne, d. 814.
Louis Debonnaire, d. 840.
Lothaire, k. of Italy.
# * •
6 Eudes,
son of Robert the Strong, 887-898.
* • •
8	Robert I., younger brother of Eudes, d. 923.
9	Rudolp, his son-in-law, d. 936.
XXX. House of Capet, 987-1328.
13	Hugh Capet, d. 996.
14	Robert II., d. 1031.
1	Charles I., the Bald, k. of France, by the peace of Vtrdun, 843, d. 877.
2	Louis II., the Stammerer, d. 879.
Louis the German.
5 Charles II„ the Fat, d. 887.
t Louis III., d. 882.	4 Carloman, d. 884.
7 Charles III., the Simple, dep. 923.
10	Louis IV., d. 954.
11	Lothaire, d. 986.
12	Louis V., d. 987.
House of Burgundy.
15	Henry I., d. 1060.
16	Philip I., d. 1108.
17	Louis VI., the Fat, d. 1137.
18	Louis VII., the Young, d. 1180.
19	Philip II., Augustus, d. 1223.
20	Louis VIII., d. 1226.
Robert,
1st duke of Burgundy, 1031, founder of the old House of Burgundy,
extinct ---------
1361.
21 Louis IX., or St. Louis, d. 1270.
House of Bourbon.
22 Philip III., the Bold,	Robert,
d. 1285.	House of Valois. House of Evreux-Navarre. c. of Clermont.
23 Philip IV., the Fair, d. 1314, by m. 1289, king also of Navarre.
24 Louis X., 26PhilipVI., 27 Charles IV., Isabei,
d. 1316. d. 1322.
25 John the Posth., b. & d. 1316.
Charles,
count
of
Valois.
Louis,
count of Evreux.
Philip, 1328, king of Navarre, by m. with Johan, d.of k. Philip IV. —extinct 1441.
1327 Louis, first duke of Bourbon.
d. 1328. m. Ed. II., of Eng.
Edward III., pretender.
XV. House of Valois, 1328-1389.
28	Philip VI., son of Charles of Valois, king 1328, d. 1350.
29	John the Good, d. 1364.
30 Charles V., the Wise, d. 1380.
31 Charles VI., d. 1422. Charles VII., d. 1461.
33	Louis XI., d. 1483.
34	Charles VIII., d. 1498.
Louis, d. of Orleans.
Louis of Anjou, Philip the Bold, father of the	founder of the
2nd line of Anjou, mod. House of Burgundy and the mod. titular	—extinct 1477.
Charles, d. of Orleans.
king of Naples Johanna, extinct 1481.
ctss. of Angoul.
35 Louis XII.,	Charles,
k. 1498, d. 1515.	count of Angouleme.
36 Francis I., d. 1547.
37 Henry II., d. 1559, m Cath. de Medici.
Charles of Anjou, king of Naples,
1265, founder of the
first line of Anjou.
| House | of Anjou-Hungary.
extinct, Charles-Robert,
1435. neph. of Chas. of Amjou, king of Hungary, 1308, d. 1342.
Louis tie Great, king of Hungary, and, 1370, king of the Poles, d. 1382.
Bouse of Burgundy In Portugal.
Henry, grandson of Robert of Burgundy,
1195,
founder of the ancient kings of Portugal— extinct, 1580.
38 Francis II., d. 1560, m. Mary Stuart.
39 Charles IX., d. 1574.	40 Henry III., king of Poland,
1573, d. 1589.
V. House of Bourbon, 1589-1830.
41 Henry IV., k. of Navarre, killed 1610.
Antony, J 555, k. of Navarre by m. the heiress,
I
House of Orleans.
42 Louis XIII., d. 1643.
Gaston, d. of Orl.,d. without sons.
1422 Alfonso, natural son of John I., king of Portugal, becomes duke of Braganza, founder of the present reigning house.
Bouse of Braganaa, 1(40.
1 John IV., d. 1656.
43 Louis XIV., d. 1715, m. Maria-Theresa. Louis, dauphin, d. 1711.
Spain i Bouse of Bourbon-Apjon.
Louis, dauphin, 1712.
I
44 Louis XV., d. 1774. Louis, dauphin, d. 1765.
1 Philip V., d. of Anjou, k. of Spain, 1701, d. 1746.
45 Louis XVI., 47 Louis XVIIL, 48 Charles X., dep. 1830.
guill. 1793, m. d. 1824.	,---;---------------------
Maria-Anton.,	Louis, Charles, d. of Beni,
of Austria.	duke of murd. 1820, m.
—^ Angouleme. Caroline of Sicily.
2 Louis, 3 Ferdinand, (1) Charles I., k. Two Slellles. 1724, d. 1724. k. 1746, d. 1759. 4th k. of Spain 1759, d. 1788.
5 CharlesIV.,till 1808,d. 1819. (2) Ferd., k.of 2 Sic.1759-1825.
I
6 Ferdinand VII., Don Carlos, restored 1814, pretender, d. 1833.
7 Isabella, b. 1830,
I
(3)	FnANcis, d. 1830.
(4)	Feed. IL, reigning.
new House, d. 1701.
Philip, 1748 d. of Philip II., Parma, d. 1765.	regent,
|	d.	1723.
Ferdinand, obt.	|
Etruria 1801, d. 1802. Louis,
|	d.	1752.
Louis, d. 1803, m.	|
Maria, queen 1803-7, Louis-Phil., restored 1815 to Lucca, d.	1785.
d. 1824.	|
|	Louis-Phil.,
Philip, 2 Alfonso VI., 3 Peter II., d.of Orleans, till 1667.	d. 1706.
founder of the	I
Louis, 46 Louis XVII.,
dauphin, d. 1795 in the	Henry (V.), d. of
d. 1789.	Temple.	Bourdeaux, b. 1820.	~	”	Charles reigns. Egalite,
************************ d. 1793. 49 Wapoleon, Bmp. Of France, Joseph, Lucian, Louis, Jerome,	Panllnc,	Caroline,	Eliza Bacciochi,
"	“" “	" 1821.	king or prince of king of king of prss. Borghese, m. Murat,	grand duchess
Spain, Canino. Holland, Westphalia, duchess or king of Naples.	of Tuscany,
ilotii, d.i________
1st wife, Josephine Bcauharnols; 2nd wife, Maria-Louisa of Austria.
count of St. Leu.
<1. II
4 John V., d. 1750.
5 Joseph-Emman., d. 1777.
6 Maria, d. 1816, m. Peter III., father’s brother, d. 1786.
7 John VI., regent 1799, d. 1826.
Survilliers
to the U. S.,	I
N. America.	I
Josephine's children before she m. Napoleon:	____ „ _ _	.	T	, „„„
1	Eogcne, vice-kg. of Italy, d. 1824, as d. of Leuchtenberg. VX. HOUSO Of Orleans* SlBOO 1830. 50 LOUIS-PHILIP, 1830,
2	Hortcnse, in. Louis Napoleon.	.	now king of the French.
D.PedroI., Isab. Maria, 8 D. Miguel, emp. of	1826-28,	k. 1828-33.
Brazil,	regent.
1822-31,d.1834.
9 Maria da Gloria, D. Pedro II., b. 1825, b. 1819, q. of Portugal, emp. of Brazil, 1831, 1827, now reigns.	reigns.
MODERN HISTORY.
73
VI. GERMAN EMPERORS-HOUSE OF HAPSBURG IN GERMANY AND SPAIN—HOUSE OF LORRAINE IN AUSTRIA, TUSCANY, MODENA, AND PARMA.
X. Carloringian Emperors till 911, l Charlemagne, d. 814.
2 Louis I., Debonnaire, d. 840, (when the Empire is divided.)
Lothaire, d. 855, king of Italy and Lorraine.
3 Louis the German, d. 876, emp. of Germany.
Charles the Bald, d. 877, king of France.
4 Charles the Fat, Louis the Young, Carloman, d. 879. d. 887.	d. 882.	|
5 ARNULF,d.899.
? Hedwig, m. Otho, duke of Saxony.
XX. Boose of Saxony.
6 Louis the Child, d. 911.	8 Henry I. the Fowler, d. 936.
VII. ELECTORS, KINGS, AND DUKES OF PRUSSIA
OF THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN.
Thassillo, count of Zollern, about 800, founder.
Conrad I., first Burgrave at Nuremberg, about 1200.
Frederic III., gt.-grandson, first hered. Burgrave, 1273.
1 Frederic VI. (I.), great-great.-grandson of Frederic III., becomes, 1415, Elector of Brandenburg, d. 1440.
---------------------------------------------------------------------,
John, the Alchemist. 2 Frederic II., d. 1471.	3 Albert Achilles, d. 1486.
7 Conrad, d. of Franconia,d. 918. 9 Omol.,the Great, d.973. Henry,
r	—- —	;-----—---------------------------A---------------d.ofBavaria,
Conrad, d. of Lorraine and Franconia.	Luitgard.	10 Otho II.,d. 983.	d. 955.
Otho, duke of Franconia.	.. ~ I Ttt j .	..I
i	11 Otho III., d. 1002.	Hemy,
Henry, duke of Franconia.	.	d. of Bavaria,
I	d. 995.
XXX. Boose of Franconia.	j
13	Conrad II., the Salic, d. 1039.	12 Henry II.,
14	Henry	III., d. 1056.	the
l	d. 1024.	’
15	Henry IV., d. 1106.
Line of Electors .-4 John Cicero, d. 1499.
, 5 Joachim I., Nestor, d. 1535.
6 Joachim II., Hector, introduced the Protestant religion 1539, d. 1571.
Frederic, maigravate of Anspach, d. 1536.
Albert! 1525, first duke of Prussia, d. 1568.
7	John-(jeorge, d. 1598.
8	Joachim-Fred., administrator in Prussia, d. 1608.
9	John Sigismokd, administrator in Prussia, 1608, obtains Cleves,
becomes Reformer 1614, duke of Prussia 1618, d, 1619.
10	George William, d. 1648.
11	Frederic William, the Great, d. 1688.
12	Frederic l.,first king of Prussia, 1701, d. 1713.
13	Frederic William, d: 1740.
Albert-Frederic, imbecile, d. 1618.
i 16 Henry V.,d. 1125.
Agnes, m. Frederic of Hohenstauffen, d. ofSuabia.
Frederic, duke ofSuabia. 18 Conrad III., d. 1152.
XV. Bouse of Stxabia, | or Bohenstanffen.
17 Lotuaire II., d. of Saxony, d. 1137.
Three Foreigners:
25	William of Holland.
26	Richard, earl of Cornwall.
27	Alfonso, king of Castile.
19 Frederic I., Barbarossa, d. 1190.
V. Bouse of Bapsburg'.
28 Rudolph I., d. 1291.	29 (Adolphus of Nassau, d. 1298.)
30 Albert I., d. 1308.
20 Henry VI., d. 1197.	21 Philip of Suabia, d. 1208.
I	* * *
23	Frederic II., d. 1250. 22 Otho IV., son of Henry, the
|	Lion, d. of Saxony, d; 1218.
24	CoNnAD IV., d. 1254.
14 Frederic IL, the Great, d. 1786.
August William.
Prince Henry, the great general, d. 1803.
15	Frederic William II., d. 1797.
16	Frederic William, now reigning.
Austrian Line: Albert.
Rudolph, k. of Boh. 1306, d. 1307.	32 Frederic, d. 1330. Leopold, killed at Morgarten, 1326.
VX. Boose of Xiuxembur?.
31 Henry VII., 1313.	32 (Louis, of Bavaria, d. 1347.)
John, king of Bohemia.
33 Charles IV., d. 1378.
Albert II., duke of Austria.
34 Wenceslas, till 1400.
35 (Robert, count palatine, d. 1410.)
36 Sigismund, king of Hung, and Boh., d. 1437.
Styrian Line : Leopold, killed at Sempach, 1386.
Ernest, duke of Austria, d. 1424. 38 Frederic III., d. 1493.
Elizabeth, who marries 37 Albert II., k. of Hung, and Boh., d. 1439.
39 Maximilian I., d. 1519, m. Mary of Burgundy.
Vladislas, king. of^Hung. and Boh., d. 1457, without heirs.
(1) Philip, k. of Spain, d. 1506, m. Johanna, d. of Ferd. and Isab. of Spain.
40 (2) Charles V., king of Spain, d. 1558.
Spanish Line.: (3) Philip II., d. 1598, m. Mary, q; of Eng.
41 Ferdinand I;, k. of Boh. and Hung., d. 1564, m. Anna, sister of the last king of Boh. and Hungary.
German Line : 42 MAXiMiLtAN II., d. 1576. Ferdinand, d. 1595, in Tyrol. Charles, archd. of Austria, d. 1590.
(4)	Philip III., d. 1621.
(5)	Philip IV., d. 1665.
(6)	Charles II., d. 1700, without heirs. House of Bourbon-Anjou succeeds:
43 Rodolph II., d. 1612.	44 Matthias, d. 1619.
45	Ferdinand II., d. 1637.
46	Ferdinand III., d. 1657.
47	Leopold I., d. 1705.
48 Joseph I., d. 1711. 49 Charles VI., d. 1740. VXX. Bouse of XiOrralne, since 1745. 51 (1) Francis I., grand duke ofTuscany 1737, d. 1765, m. Maria Theresa.
50 Charles VII., of Bavaria, 1742-45.
52 Joseph II., d. 1700.
53 (2) Leopold II., grand d. ofTuscany till 1790, d. 1792.
54 (1) Francis I., the last Germ. emp. 1806, first Emperor of Austria, d. 1835.
Ferdinand, d. of Brisgau, m. the heiress of Modena, d. 18C *
(2) Ferdinand, reigning emp. of Austria.
(3) Ferdinand, grand d. of Tuscany: elector of Salzburg, 1803,
grand d. of Wurtzburg 1806, restored 1814, d. 1824.	Francis I., d. of Modena,
---------------*------------------------------^	|	restored 1814.
Marie Louise, m. Napoleon, 1814 duchess of Parma. (4) Leopold II., now grand duke of Tuscany.
VIII. THE EMPERORS OF RUSSIA—THE KINGS OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN: THE HOUSE OF OLDENBURG.
Russia.	Denmark.	Sweden.
X. Bouse of Burik, till 1598.
1 Ivan I., 1462-1505, delivers Russia from the Tartar yoke.
Bouse of Oldenburg:, from 1448.
1 ClIRISTIERN I.. 1448-81.
X. Bouse of Vasa, 1523-1654.
1. Gustavus Vasa, protestant, 1523-60.
2	Vasili, d. 1533.
3	Ivan II., d. 1584.
2 John, d. 1513.
3 Christiern II.,dep. 1523.
4 Frederic I., protestant, d. 1533.
4	Feodor, d. 1598. Demetrius, murd. 1591: Maria-Ivan. i
5	Boris,d. 1605. 6 Feodor, his son: 7 Chwofski, d. 1610. J
XX. Bouse of Romanoff, 1613-1762.
8 Michael Romanoff, d. 1645.
) Alexis, d. 1676.
10 FeodorII.,d. 1682. 11 Ivan, till 1689.	12 PetbrZA« Great,d. 1725.
13 Cath. I., his wid., d. 1727;
Catherine, m. 15 Anna, d. 1740, r~
C. Leop. of m. Fred. (Kcttler), Alexis, Anna, d. 1728, 17 Elizabeth,
Mecklbg. Sch. d. ofCourland. beh. 1718. m. C. Fred., d. 1762;
I	|	duke of
Anna, d. 1746,	14 Peter II., IIolst.-Gott.
m. Antony of	d. 1730. d. 1739.
Brunsw.,	|
d. 1775. XXX. Bouse of Bolstein-Gott., from 1762.
|	18 Peter III., 1762, murd. 1762.
16 Ivan, 1740,41,	19 Catherine II., his wid.,d. 1796.
murd. 1764.	|
20 Paul, murd. 1801.
21 Alexander, d. 1825.	22 Nicholas, the reigning emperor, Gr. Prince Michael,
m. Alex., d. of Fred. Will. III. of Prussia.
Alexander, grand duke, hered. pr. of Russia, b. 1818. Constantine, b. 1827.
5	Christiern III., d. 1559.
|	Line of Holstein- Gott.
6	Frederic II., d. 1588.
7	Christiern IV., d. 1648.
8	Frederic III., d. 1670.
9	Christiern V;, d. 1699.
10	Frederic IV., d. 1730.
11	Christiern VI., d. 1746.
12	Frederic, d. 1766;
13	Christiern VII., Fred.cr. pr:, f—
2 Eric XIV., 3 John III., d. 1592.	5 Charles IX., 1611.
dep. 1568.	|	,------------K------------------
Adolph:	4 Sigismond, Catharine, m. 6 Gustav. Adolph.,
k: of Poland, 1587, JohnCasimir,	d. 1632.
k. of Sweden	of Deux-Ponts.	|
1592-1604,	I	7 Christina,
d. 1634.	resigns 1654.
XX. Bouse of Deux-Ponts, 1654-1751.
8	Charles X;,d. 1660.
9	Cnarles XL, d. 1697.
10 Charles XII., 11 Ulrica Eleon., 1719,20. d. 1718.	12 Frederic of Hesse-Cass;,
her husband, d. 1751.
Frederic-Chr.-Aug. XXX. Bouse of Bolst-Gott., 1751-1818.
d. 1808.
14 FnEDERicVI., now reigns.
d. 1805.
ChriFred.
Frederic, b. 1808.
Frederic Aug., bp. of Lubeck, 1773 duke of Oldenburg.
Peter^Fred., d. 1829.
Augustus, now grand duke.
13 Adolph. Fred;, 1751, d. 1771.
14 Gustavus III., d. 1792. 16 Charles XIII.,d. 1818.
15 Gustavus IV., resigns 1809.
17 Charles XIV,, Bemadotte, adopted by Charles XIII., now Teigns.
GENERAL INDEX,
Aahgau, canton, 52 b Abaffi I,, of Transylvania, 40 g
-------- II., of Transylvania, 40 g
Abaka, 17 m Abate, Nicolo dell, 68 c Abbas Mirza, 54 b
■	--the Great, k. of Persia, 33
d, 37 h
------II., of Persia, 37 b, 41 g
-------- III., of Persia, 45 c
------, Shah, 60 a
Abbassides, dynasty of, 7 e, 11 e Abbasside Khalifat finally extinguished, 29 c Abbo, monk, lib Abbot, 34 a, 64 b .
Abdalla, Khalif, 5 d, 8 c Abdallah, 7 e, 8 c, 10 c
—:---------Sharfaddin, 15 b
Abdelmelek, lie Abdelmumen, 14 a Abderrahman, 6 c, 7 e
■	----------II., 8 c
—	■	-	, splendid court of,
10	c
Abdenahman III., 10 c Abderrahman IV., 12 a
--------------V., 12 a
Abdoolla Khan, 33 e Abdoolla Khan Usbek, 33 e Abdnl-Abbas, 7 e Abdul-Hamid, sultan, 49 a Abdulmelek Khalif. 5 d Abdul Wahhab, 49 a Abel, king of Denmark, 17 b Abelard, Peter, 15 b, 24 a A ben Humaya, 31 b Abensburg, battle at, 52 c Abercrombie, death of, 54 a
--------------70 a
Aberdeen, earl of, 51 a, 67 a Aberdeen university founded, 20 c
■	-------, old, university founded,
22 b
Abernethy, John, 70 b Abo, conference of, 53 b ------peace of, 44 e. 45 a
—	university of, 36 g Aborigines of France, 2 c
-----------Spain, 2 c
Abou-Dahab, Mohammed, 49 a Abonkir, defeat at, 54 a Aboul Fatteh, k. of Persia, 49 b Abrantes, duke of, 70 c Absimarus, 5 c
Absolute Idealism, theory of, 70 a
------Identity, theory of, 70 a
------monarchies, 62 a
-------------------period of,
38 c
------power destroyed, 38 a
Absolutists, rebellion of, 51 b Abu Ali, Khalif, 13 e Abubekr, 23 n Abu Fazl, 33 e
------Ibrahim, 13 e
------Say id, 19 n, 23 1, m
Abushehr, English factory established at, 49 b
Abu Sudan, opposes Mohammed, 5 d
Abuzafer-Almansur, 7 e Abyssinia becomes known to Europe, 29 d Acacius, 3 d
Academies, ancient, suppressed, 67 e
Acad, des Inscriptions, 63 e
------des Sciences, 39 c, 63 e,
64 c
------d’ Architecture, 63 e
—	de Musique, 63 e Academia della Crusca, 69 e Academie Franfaise, 34 b, 59 e Acadia colonised, 37 e
------ceded to England, 45 f
------settled, 45 f
Acapulco, 33 f
Acca, 2 a
Achenwall, 63 d, 64 d Acominatus, Nicetas, 15 b, 17 a Acre taken, 15 e, 54 a, 66 b Acropolis taken, 54 a Act tor the government of India, 49 c
------ suppressing seditious
meetings, 51 a
.— of hereditary union in Sweden, 28 f
------Indemnity, 42 d
------ Settlement in England,
62 a
------Uniformity, 38 c
—	for suppressing conventicles, 38 c
------of union and safety in Sweden, 48 d
Acton, ministry of, 47 f Actuarius, Jean, 17 a Acursius, 17 a Adalvald, 4 d Adam, Lamb, 64 e Adams, 65 d
------John, 49 f, 55 a
------John Quincy, 55 a, 66 a
------Robt. 60 e
Addington, 67 d; ministry of, 51 a Addison, 63 e, 64 b, 65 a Adelaide, q. of Loihaire, 10 e
Adelmus, 7 b Aden, 26 a Adeodatus, pope, 5 a Aderbijan subdued, 29 c Ado, historian, 9 b Adolphus Frederic, prince of Sweden, 44 e, 48 d, 73 Adolphus of Nassau, 16 g Adrian I., pope, 7 a
------II., pope, 9 a
------III., pope, 9 a
------IV., pope, 15 a
------V.. pope 16 i
------VI., pope, 27 e >
Adrian, painter, 69 b Adrianople, 19 e, 53 e, 54 a, 66 b /Esc, 2 a /Etius, 2 c
/Etna, eruption of, 52 f Afghan dynasty, 23 n Afghan power, end of, 29 f Afghans, 29 f, 33 e, 37 c, 54 c Afghanistan conq. by the Persians, 45 c
Africa, 5 a, 5 e, 11 e, 29 d Aga Mohammed Shah, 54 b Agapetus, pope, 3 d
---------II., pope, 11 a
Agatho, pope, 5 a Agila, 2 o Agilulf, 3 b, 4 b Agincourt, battle of, 20 d, 57 b Aglabite dynasty, 9 e, 11 e Aguadello, 26 d, 27 a Agra destroyed, 29 f Agra, 32 d, 33 c, e, 45 d, 54 d Agria, brattle of, 32 d, 33 c Agricola, 27 e; George, 60 c Agricola, Rudolph, 22 b Agriculture, 57 c, 59 b, 63 b, 67 b; decay of, 5 c ; encouraged, 57 c, 59 b, 63 b ; its decline, 63 b; wretched, under the feudal system, 57 c Agricultural labourers oppressed,
Agrippa, H. Corn. 60 b, c Agryopulus, John, 22 b Ahhmed I., sultan, 37 a; II., 41 f; III., 45 b; the Buyide, 11 e; sultan, 17 m, 19 n; emp. of Delhi, 49 c; Doorani, k. of Cabul, 45 c; Kioprili, 41 f; k. of India, 45 d Ahmedabad, 29 f Abmednuggur, 29 f, 33 e Aids, 57 a
Aid toi, society of, 50 a Aiguillon,d’,due,ministry of,46 b A illy, d’, Peter, 22 b, 24 b Aimoin, 9 b, 11 b Air-pump, invention of, 64 c Airy, professor, 70 b Aislabie, chan, of exchequer, 42 d Aix-la-Chapelle, national assem-bly at, 8 e; congress of, 50 a, 52 d; victory of, 52 a; burgher army of, 57 b Akbar, 60 a ; sepulchre of, 60 e Akbar Shah 11., 54 d Akenside, Mark, 65 a Akerman, convention of, 54 a Ala ad din, 23 n Alabama joins the Union, 55 a Alamanm, Luigi, 61 b Aland conquered by the Russians, 45 a, 53 b Alans invade Spain, 2 b Alarcon, battle of, 14 a Alaric II., 2 b Alba, 58 d
Albani, Francesco, 68 d Albania conquered by the Turks, 23 i; revolts in, 54 a Albano, Pietro di, 17 a; 19 b Albano, pope, 40 a, 44 b Alban’s, St., abbey founded, 6 a;
battle of, 20 d Albany, duke of, 18 d, 20 c
-------congress at, 49 f
Albegeoise, crusade against, 16 f Albernoz, 19 a
Alberoni,- ministry of, 42 b; policy of, 44 a, 62 a, 14 Albert, A., 18 g, 73
------of Austria, 32 a
------of Brandenburg, 28 g, 73 j
32 c
------Frederic, d. of Prussia,
32 g, 73
------king of Sweden, 19 e
------II., Hun., 21 k, 73
------the Great, 24 a, 73
------I., emp., 16 g, 73
------II., emp., 21 h, 73
------d. of Prussia, 32 g, 73
Albertinelli, Mariotto, 24 c, 68 a Alberti, Lion. Battista, 57 d Albert, mathematician, 17 a Albigenses, 15 a, 18 i Albijz, 18 i
Albion, new, discovered, 33 f Albirunius, lib
Alboin’s expedition into Italy, 3 b Albrechtsberger, 65 d Albuquerque, 26 a Alcacebas, peace of, 20 a Alcala, 27 f; de Henares, parliament of, 18 c
Alcassim, 12 a
Alcazar-quivir, battle at, 31 a Alchemy, 19 b Alcmar, Heinrich v., 24 b Alcuin, 7 b, 24 a Aldenhoven, defeat at, 50 a Aldhelme, 7 b Aldobrandini, 31 e Aldrich, dean, 64 e, 65 d Aldrovandus, Ulys. 60 c d’Alembert, 48 a, 64 b Alemghir, title of, assumed, 41 h
1.,	emp. of Delhi, 45 d; II., 49 c Aleppo, kingdom of, 15 e Alemanni, 3 b; submit to the
Franks, 2 c ; and Franks overrun Ganl, 2 c, 4 c, 56 b Alessi, Galeazzo, 60 e Alexander de Medici, 27 c Alexander II., of Sicily, 16 d
---------III. of Sicily, 16 d
---------de Rhodes, 35 h
------------ of Greek empire, 11 d
------------ emp. of Russia, 53 e
66	a, 73
------------ L, of Scotland, 14 c
---------Hier., 22 b
---------II., pope, 13 a; III.,
15a ; IV., 16 i; V.,22a; VI., 22 a, 27 e; VII., 40 a; VIII., 40 a
Alexandria, commerce of, 5 d; conquered, 5 d ; library of, burnt, 5 d; church of, 5 a; taken, 54 a; school of, 7 b; sarcophagus of, 64 e. Alexandrists, 60 b Alexis, czar, 36 k
---------czarowitz. 45 a, 41 e
Alexius I., Greek emperor, 13 d, 15 d; II., 15 d; III., 15 d, 17 k; IV., 17 k Alexius Comnenus, 17 b Alfieri, Vitt. 65 b Alfragius, 11 b
Alfonso I., (the Catholic) of the Asturias,6c; II.,(thechaste) 6 c, 8 d ; III., 8 d, 10 c ; IV., 10 c; V., 10 c, 12 a; VI., 12 a, 14 b; VII., 14 b; VIII., 14 b; IX., 16 b; X., 16 b; XI., 18 c
Alfonso II., of Aragon, 14 b; HI., 16 b; IV., 18 b; V.,
20	b
---------duke of Braganza, 20 a
---------k. of Castile, 20 b
---------k. of Navarre, 14 b
--------- II., of Portugal, 16 a;
111.,	16 a; IV., 18 a; V., 20 a , VI., 39 a
---------I., of Sicily, 21 m ; II.,
21	m
Alfred the Great, 4 a, 6 a, 8 a;
laws of, 56 c Alfwold, 6 a
Algiers, 27 f, 29 d; bombarded by the French, 39 c, 66 b; expedition against, 47 g, 50 a; attacked by the Spanish, 47 g; bombarded by the English, 54 a; subjected to the Turks, 58 b Alhakem, 6 c, 8 c, 10 c Alhambra founded, 16 c, 57 d, 60 e
Abacus, Peter, 19 b Ali Adil Shah, 45 c Ali Bey, 49 a Alien Act, 50 b Ali, Khalif, 5 d
----Konmourdji, vizier, 45 b
----Mohammed, 54 a
----Mourad, k. of Persia, 49 b
-— of Cordova, 12 a, 14 a Alison, 70 c Aljibed, 6 c
Aliubarotta, victory at, 18 a Alkahera founded, 11 b, e Allahabad, treaty of, 46 b, 46 c, 49 c
Allan, David, 69 c Allegri,Greg.60 f; Antonio,68 c Allen, Wm. 63 d Alliance of Austria with France, 47 c
----------------------- Saxony
and Sardinia, 43 c -----------------------Russia,
--------the Bohemian revolted, 36 c
-------- Catholics and Protestants, 32 a
--------England, Spain, and
the Pope, 26 c
--------England and the Emperor, 26 c
------------------and Holland,
38 b
--------•---------and Portugal,
38 b, 39 a
■-----------------and Prussia,
46 c
------------------Holland, and
Sweden, 41 b
------------------and Prussia,
48	b
--------France and Scotland,
26 b
Alliance of France and the Turks,
Protestants, 26 d
against Spain, 34 b
with Sweden
against Austria, 34 b
with Portugal against Spain, 34 b
-and the United
States, 49 f
&c., 43 f
i Holland,
i
Genoa with Spain,
Germany and England, 28 b
-------the Grand, 39 c, f, 40
c, e
-------of Hungary with Venice,
28 d
-------Heraclius with Turks,
--------the Northern Powers
against Charles XII. 41 a, e
--------Poland and Sweden,
33 a
--------Prussia and Holland,
48 b
----------------with the Porte
and Poland, 48 b
--------Russia and the Porte,
45 a
----------------and Sweden,
45 a
--------:-------and Austria,
45 a
- with Sweden, -with Denmark,
■ Savoy with France, - Scotland and Eng-
--------the Swiss with the
Pope against France, 28 a -------- Swiss and France,
----------Venice with Poland
and the Empire, 39 d Allies enter Paris, 50 a Almagro, 29 g Almansor of Cordova, 10 c Almansur, 7 e Alroeyda, 26 a
Almohade dynasty, 14 a, 16 c Almondhir, 8 c
Almoravide dynasty in Spain, 12 a, 14 a
Almowat, 13 e Aloysius, 57 d Alp Arslan, 13 f Alpine, 8 b AlpTegin, lie
Alsace ceded to France, 34 b, 36 c; invaded by the Austrians, 42 c ; by the Prussians, 50 a Alstan, 8 a
Alst, Evrald van, 69 b Althiogs, 9 c, 56 a Althorpe, lord, 61 a, 66 d Allieri, pope, 40 a Altona, convention of, 41 a Alt-Rastadt, peace of, 44 e Alunno, Nicolo, 24 c Alva, 31 b, 32 k, 59 a Alvinzi, 52 e A1 Zaher, 17 m Aroalaric, 2 b Amalasontha, 3 c Amalfi, 12 e, 14 f, 56 e Amati, 60 f
Ambaise, conspiracy of, 30 d Amber fishery, 19 f Aroberg, victory at, 52 c Amboy na settled, 36 a; massacre of, 36 a ; taken by the English, 50 b
Ambrogio, Lorenzetti, 68 b Ambroeius, 2 a
America, 20 b, 22 b, 24 d, 29 g, 33f,37e, 41 k,49e, 55,59 b, c American war, 46 c, 49 f, 62 b; constitution, 49 f; increasing civilisation of, 45,67 e; statesmen, 67 d
Amerigo Vespucci, 29 g Amherst, general, 46 b Amherst, lord, 54 d, e Amiens cathedral, 57 d; peace of, 50 a, 51 c, 52 a, 66 b Amim, 65 c Amin, Khalif, 9 e " Amir al Amra,” 11 e Amir Khan, 54 d Amir Sheikh Ali, 23 n Amis des Noirs, 49 e Amorium war, 9 d Amru, 5 d Amsterdam, 39 c Amsterdam, 53 e, 59 c, 60, a, e Amurath, 33 c Anabaptists, 27 e, g Anacletus, pope, 15 a Analva gold mines, 49 e
Anastasius I., pope, 3 e; II., 3 d, 7 d; III., 11a; IV., 15 a Anastasius, librarian, 9 b Anatomists, 70 b Anchises, 72
Ancillon, Fred., 67 d, 70 c Ancona, 52 e, 66 b Ancre, d’, marechal, 34 b Anderson, Mrs., 65 d Andres, 31 e
Andrew II., Hun., 17 g, 57 a; III-. 17 g
Andrew, St., order of, 41 e Andrews, St., university of, 20 c, 22 b
Andrieux, 65 c
Andronicus I., of Greek empire, 13 d, 15 a; II., 17 1.19 k Angelico, Beato Giovanni, 68 a Angelo, Michael, 59 e, 60 e, 68 a Angers, university of, 19 b Anglesey, marquis, 51 a Anglicus, Gilbert, 19 b Anglo-Saxon period, 2 a Anglo-Saxon octarchy, 6 a, 8 a Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity, 3 d
-------------of importance in
the eyes of Europe, 10 a Angola settled, 31 a Angora, battle of, 23 k Angouleme, duke of, 50 a, 72 Angus, earl, 20 c,26 b Animuccia, Giov., 60 f Anjou, house of, 16 h, 18 k, 42 b, 51 c, 72
Anjou, Charles of, 6 i
-------- Henry, count of, 14 d
------Margaret of, 20 d
Ankarstroro, 48 d Anlaf the Dane, 10 a Anna, a. of Poland, 33 a Annapolis, 49 f Annates first imposed, 19 a Anne du Bourg, 30 d Anne, emp. of Russia, 45 a
------infanta, 35 a
------of Austria, 34 b, 39 b
------. of Denmark, 30 b, 32 e
------q. of England, 42 d
——— princess, 43 a Anquetil du Perron, 63 e Annual Register, 70 c Ansbrand, 6 e
Anselm, archbp. 12 c, 14 d, 24 a Ansgar, apostle, 9 a Anson's voyage, 42 d Anson, admiral, 45 f, 46 c Anspach, margrave of, 32 g Anspach acquired by Prussia, 48 b
Anthemius, 57 d Antigua settled, 37 e Antinomians, rise of, 35 h; doctrines, 27 e
Antioch, capture of, 3 f, 7 d,
11	d, 17 i
Antioch, church of, 5 a Antiphlogistic system, 70 b Antipodes, 7 b Antiques, discovery of, 60 e Antiquities, Chigi collection of, 64 e; Farnesian collection of, 64 e
Antitrinitarians, rise of, 31 e Antoine, 64 e
Antoine, duke of Bourbon, 30 d Antonio, prior of Crato, 31 a Antonissens, Hen., 69 a Antwerp, 24 d, 27 g, 32 a, 59 c
------capitulation of, 62 a
------great church, 57 d; exchange, 60 e Annuanati Bart. 60 e Anville, d', 64 d Aodh, 8 b
Apes, keeper of, made cardinal, 31 e
Aphrodisiensis Alexand. 60 b Apocrypha, declared of equal authority with the other scriptures, 27 e
A pons, Petro de, 19 b Apostolic Junta, 51 c Apostolicorum, bull of, 48 a Apostolic majesty assumed, 47 d Appellants, appeal of, 44 b Appenzel, province of, submits to receive subsidies, 47 b Appenzill, canton, 52 b Appiani, 68 d
Apulia conquered by the Germans, 10 e; by the Normans,
12	e; Turks, 27 d Apulia, duke of, 13 a Aqueducts repaired, 31 e Aquinas, Thomas, 19 a 24 a Aquitaine, conquered by the
Franks, 2 b; a separate state, 4 c; dukes of, 4 c, 10 d Arabian astronomy, flee., flourishing period of, 7 e
------schools of geometry, 11 b
------ literature, Augustan age
of, 9 b, e ; golden age of, 10 c ------monarchy, first dismemberment of, 9 e
Arabian Nights first translated, 63 e
Arabian trade to India, 59 c Arabia Felix, conquest of, 3 f Arabs, profess to be descended from Abraham, 5 d; threaten Europe, 6c; defeat the Greeks, 5 c; subdue Persia, 5 e; attempt to invade Spain, 4 b ; conquer Spain, 7 e; progress of stayed, 56 a
Araccan ceded to the British, 54 d Arago, 70 b Aragon, house of, 18 1 Aragon, kingdom of, 12 a, 14 b, 18 b, 20 b, 56 c; united to Castile, 20 b Aram, 23 n Aranda, d’, duke, 39 g Aranda, ministry of, 47 g Aranjuez, revolution of, 51 c Araucan Indians make head against the Spaniards, 41 k Arc, Joan of, 20 d Arcadius and Honorius divide the Roman world, 3 e Arce, 65 b
Archangel, 59 c; English at, 33 b Archbishoprics founded in America, 29 g Archenholz, 70 c Archers, companies of, established, 20 e
--------French, 59 a
Arches, pointed, 57 d Architects, 59 e; English, 60 e, 64 e; French, 60 e; Italian, 64 e; Spanish, 60 e Architecture, 60 e
------------and sculpture, 64 e
------------acad. of at Paris, 63 e
------------Arabian, 57 d
-----;------ French, flourishing
period of, 64 e; German ana Dutch, 60 e; Indian, 60 e; Roman, 60 e
Arcis-sur-l’Aube, repulse at, 50 a Areola, victory of, 52 e Arcos, duke de, 35 g Ardoin, 12 e Ardres, 26 d
Aretino, Guido, 13 b; Leonardo Bruno, 22 b
Arezzo, Spinello of, 24 c Arezzo, Guido, 24 c Arfe, 60 e Argand lamps, 64 a Argenson, d’, 39 c, 63 d Argensola, Leon, and Bart, de, 61b
Arghun, Khan, 17 m Argyle, earl of, 30 b
-------rebellion of, 38 b
A nans, 3 c
Arian doctrines supported by Whiston. 44 b Aribert, 4 d Arimbert II., 6 e Aristocracy and Freemen, division of, 4 c
------------triumph of, 4 c
------------old creed of, 46 c
------------origin of, 56 a
------------acquire gTeat power,
2	c; increase of the power of, 56 a; predominates, 56 a ; triumphs over the people, 4 c
Aristocratical feudal system, 56 a, 8 e
Aristotle, doctrines of, 17 a, 19 b Aristotle's logic comes into repute, 15 b; system, 60 b; works widely • disseminated, 24 a
Arithmetic, school of, founded by Charlemagne, 7 b
------------ linear, inventer of,
70 b
Arivald, 4 d Arkwright, Rob. 63 c Arles, joined to the empire of the Ostrogoths, 2 b; conquest of,
3	c
Arlincourt, d’, 65 c Arlington, 38 b Armada destroyed, 30 c Armed Neutrality, 46 c Armenia devastated, 3 e; lost by the Greek emp., 5 c; seized by the Monguls, 17 i; overrun, 29 c; restored to Persia, 45 b; subdued by the Arabs, 5 d, 7 e Armenian Christians separated from the Greek church, 3 d Armenian manufacturers at Julfa, 37 b
Armignacs, massacre of, 20 e Anninians, 35 h; condemned, 36 a; conspiracy, 36 a; dissensions of, 36 a
Armorica, a large body of Britons settle in, 2 a Armorium rased, 9 d Armstrong, D. 65 a Army, hired, 57 b Armies, standing, introduced, 58 a, 67 a; in Europe after the peace of Nimeguen, 63 a; the first in England, 63 a; in Hungary, 59 a ; in Sweden, 59 a; France, 59 a; Austria, 67 a
GENERAL INDEX.
Army, standing, first national of France, 20 e; of Henry IV. of France, 59 a; in Denmark, 59 a
Annies, superiority of English, 67 b; burgher, strength of, 57 b Arnauld, Ant., 64 b Arnault, 65 c Arnold, Rev. T. 70 c Arnold of Brescia, 15 a Arnold of Winkelried, 18 Arnulf, king of Italy, 8 e
----------------- Germany, 8 g
Arpa Khan, 19 n Aijpad, chief of the Seven hordes, 9 c, 11 c; eitinction of the house of, 19 h
Ariosto, Lud., 61 b, 59 e • Arques, victory of, 30 d
--------William of, 12 d
Ana can conquered, 54 d Anan, earl of, 30 b Arras, peace of, 21 f Arriaza, 65 b Arrigis, 6 e Arsenius, 17 1 Artemisia, 68 b Artevelde, 18 f, 56 a, 57 c Arthur, king, 2 a Arthur, p. of Wales, 26 c Arthur, sir Geo., 55 c Articles, sii, 26 c; four, 39 c: XXXIX., ratified, 30 c Artificers invited to Russia, 29 b
Artillery, flying, 67 a; French, 69 a; French, great improve* ment in, 63 a
Artois, 27 g; united to France, 20 e
Arts, decay of, 5 c Arundel, earl of, 34 a, 60 e Arundelian marbles, 60 e Aschaffenberg, concordat, 22 a Ascalon, victory of, 13 b Ascham, Roger, 59 e, 61 d Aacough, adm., 38 b Ashantees defeat English troops, 50b	^
Ashley, 38 b
Ashmolean museum, Oxford, 64 e Asia lost to Christianity, 6 a Asia Minor invaded by the Persians, 5 e; ravaged by the Saracens, 9 d Asiatic Register, 70 c --------Society in Calcutta, 63 e
—	■— Researches, 67 e Asiento question settled, 42 d
—	given to England, 45 f; war respecting, ib.
Asov, ceded to Genos, 17 1 Aspern, repulse at, 52'c " Assassins,” derivation of, 9 e;
numerous in Syria, 13 e Assaye, victory of, 54 d Asseer conquered, 33 e Assemblies, general, govern in the Lombard provinces, 3 b
-------------national, decline of,
58a
Assembly, national, at Aix, 8 e Asser, John, 9 b Assisi church built, 57 d Assize, justices of, instituted, 56 c
Assurance Companies, London Royal, 42 d
— ------Royal, act of, in Sweden, 44 e
Assyria a province of the Parthian empire, 3 f Astolphe, 6 e
Astracan, principality of, 22 h;
overrun by the Mongols, 17 f Astrakhan Tartars conquered, 33 b
Astrology, 19 b, 60 a
■-------and Medicine, college
of, 19 b
Astronomers, 64 c, 67 e Astronomy, Arabian schools of, lib
Astnrias, kingdom of, 6 c, 10 c, 12 a; prince of, 31 b Atace, 2 b
Atanlphus, 2 b, 29 g Athalaric, 3 c Athanagild, 2 b, 6 c Atbelard, mathematician, 15 b Atbelstan, 10 a
Athens bombarded, 39 d, 4\ f; defeat at, 54 a; conquered by the Turks, 23 i; suppression of the schools at, 3 e Athol, Walter, earl of, 20 c Atterbom, Amad., 65 b Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, 42 d
Attila, 2 c Attwood, 65 d Auber, F., 65 d Aubuison, 23 i, 70 b Aubrey, 60 a Auchmuty, sir S„ 50 b Auckland, Lord, 54 d, 57 a Audouin, 70 b Audubon, 70 b Aue, Hartman v. d., 24 b Augereau, general, 50 a Auentadt, defeat at, 53 e Augsburg, council of, 11 a; diet of, 27 e, 28 b, 31 e, 32 c; defeat at, II c
Auguier, J. and M., 64 e Augustine sent missionary to England, 2 a, 3 d
St. Augustin, hermits of, 16 k Augustus the Pious, 32 c
--------of Poland, 40 e
Aulic council, 28 b, 58 c Auray, battle of, 18 f Aurelio, 6 c
Auricular confession established, 16 i
Aurung Zeb, 37c,41h, 45 d Austen, Miss, 65 a Austerlitz, victory of, 52 c Australia discovered, 64 a Austrasia, kingdom of, 2 c, 6 d Austria, consolidation of the mar-gravate of, 10 e; conquered by the Bohemians, 16 g; depopulated, 17 g; formed into an hereditary duchy, 14 f, 21 h; invaded by the Turks, 23 i; acquires Sardinia, etc., 43 c, h; first emperor of, 73 Austria and Prussia, beginning of their rivalry, 62 b; humiliation of, 66 b
Austrian succession, war of, 62 b; influence restored in Italy, 66 b; manufactures, flourishing period of, 63 c ; national bankruptcy, 52 c, 66 d Autharis, 3 b
Auto de F6, 20 b, 22 a, 31 b, 48
a,	60 a
Automaton figures, 9 b Auverne, William of, 24 a Auxiliis, de, 31 e, 35 h Avars, invade Italy, 3 b; the Greek empire, Hungary, etc., 3 e
Aveiro family, 46 a Averroes, 15 b, 24 a, 60 b Avicenna, 13 h
Avignon, papal court at, 18 f, 19 a; seized by France, 39 c ; restored to the pope, 40 a ; massacre at, 46 b; university founded, 19 b Aweis, sultan, 19 n Aycha IV., 8 b Aylmer, Lord, 55 c Ayrer, Jac., 61 c Ayscough, sir G., 41 k Ayton, Fanny, 65 d Ayub, 54 c
Azerbiian ceded to the Porte, 45 b Azidaddin, 15 e Azif, vizier, 37 c Azo, 17 a
Azoph, 11 b; taken by toe Cossacks, 37 a; captured by the Russians, 41 e, 45 a, 48 b; ceded to Russia, 48 f Azores discovered, 20 a Azotus, defeat at, 15 e
Baaosr, Fr. v., 70 d Babbage, 70 b
Baber, k. of Ferghana, 23 1,29 f Babington’s conspiracy, 30 c Bacciochi, Eliza, 72 Bach, sculptor, 64 e
-----J. Seb., 63 e, 65 d
-----J.Ch., Fr. Em. and Inv., 65 d
Bacon, John, 64 e -------lord, 30 c, 34 a, 59 e, 60
b,	61 d
-------sir Nathaniel, 69 d
-------Roger, 16 e, 17 a, 19 b,
24 a
Baconthorpe, 24 a Bactriana, 3 f
Badajoz stormed by Wellington, 51 b, c
Baden, charter of, 52 c
-------prince of, 40 g, 42 d
-------truce of,'52 c
Bagdad, 7 b, e, 13 f. 17 m, 19 m, n, 23 m, 29 c, e, 37 a, 45 b, c Baggesen, Jens, 65 b Bagnacavallo, 68 d Bahadur, king of India, 45 d Bahamas settled, 37 e Bahar conq. by the Moguls, 33 e Bahmani kingdom divided, 29 f Bahrain Gor, (Varanes V.,) 3 f Bahrein acquired by Persia, 33 d Baian, 3 e Baidu Khan, 17 m Bailey, E. A., 64 e Baillie, Joanna, 65 a
-------Malt., 70 b
Bailly, mayor, 46 b, 50 a
--------70 c
Bainbridge, capt., 55 a Baird, sir David, 51 c Baireuth, acquired by Prussia,' 48 b
Baisankor, 23 m Baius of Louvain, 31 e Bajazet, 19 m, 23 i, 33 c Baker, R., 60 d Bakhuysen, 69 b Balance of power, 58 b Balasch, 3 t Balbi, Adr.,70c Balboa, 29 g Balck, Herm., 17 e Balde, 61 c Baldus, 19 b Baldwin, 13 b ; II., 17 k Bale, J., 69 e, 60 d, 61 a Balearic isles, 16 b, 18 b Balfe, 65 d Balkh, 17 n, 33 d Balliol, John, 16 d Balloon, Montgolfier’s, 64 a Balmerino, lord, 42 d Baltaji, vizier, 45 a Baltic, free navigation, 28 e; naval victory in, 45 a; struggle for provinces of, 58 b Baltimore, lord, 37 e Balzac, 65 c Bancroft, 34 a, 70 c Banda settled, 36 a; taken, 50 b Bandello, Matt., 61 b Bandinelli, 60 e Bangor monastery destroyed, 4 a Bangorian controversy, 44 b Banks,59c; of Amsterdam, 36 a; Berlin, 48 b; England built, 64 e, cash payments of, 66 d, charter, 51 a, incorporated, 38 b, 63 c; Florence, 24 d;
France, 50 a, 63 c; Genoa, 24 d; Petersburg, 48 f, 63 c; Stockholm, 41 b; UnitedStates,
49	f, 55 a, 63 c; Venice, 31 c; Vienna, 43 d, 63 c
Bank, Law’s, 62 d ------notes voted equal to gold,
50	b	8
Banks, system of, 66 d Banker, the first of Italy, 21 1 Banks, Sir Joseph, 70 b Bannat laid waste, 47 d Banner, gen., 36 c, 59 a Bannockburn, battle of, 18 e Banquets, 60 a Baour-lormian, 65 c Baptism of Moslems, 27 f Baptists, rise of, 31 e Baptistry of Pisa, 57 d
Bar ceded to France, 42 c Barante, 70 c Barbadoes settled. 37 e Barbara, countess of Cilley, 21 k Barbarelli, 68 c Barbarossa, 27 d Barbaroux, 70 c Barbary pirates chastised, 40 b Barbauld, Mrs., 65 a Barbiano, A1 baric di, 57 b Barbier. 65 c Barbieri, Giov., 68 d Barbour, John, 24 b Barcelona taken, 39 b, 42 b; treaty of, 27 f; cathedral built, 57 d
Barclay, sir G., 38 b Bards, 2 c
Barebone’s parliament, 38 b Barlaam, 19 b Barlow, sir George, 54 d Barnave, 67 d Barnes, Jo., 63 e Barnet, battle of, 20 d Barnett, 65 d
Barneveldt, pensionary, 32 a, 36 a
Barocci, Frederico, 68 b Barometers, 60 a Baronets instituted, 34 a Baronial courts, 8 e „
Baronins, cardinal, 35 g, 60 d Barri, Madame de, 46 b Barricades, Journte des, 30 d Barrier treaty of Antwerp, 43 a, 47 a
Barros, Joao de, 60 d Barrot, Odilon, 67 d Barry, James, 69 c Banhelemy, 64 d, 65 c Bartholdy, F. Mendelssohn, 65 d Bartholomew, island of, 49 e Bartholomew, St., massacre of, 30 31 e, 58 a
Bartolomireo, Fra., 68 a Bartolommeo, 24 c Bartolus, 19 b Barton, Bern., 65 a
-----the privateer, 26 b
Basedow, 64 b Basientello, defeat at, 10 e Basil I., Gr. emp., 9 d; II., lid, 13 d
-----IV., c. of Russia, 29 b
-----Chwofski, czar, 36 k
Basilica published, 9 d Basilides, of Abyssinnia, 35 h Basle, 28 a
-----canton, 52 b
-----council of, 22 a; peace of,
. 60 a, 53 c; university of, 21 g, 22 b
Basnage, 64 d Basques defeated, 4 b Basque roads, battle, 50 b Bassano, duke of, 67 d
-----211,68 c
Bassien, treaty of, 54 d Basso, Seb., 64 b Bassorah taken, 49 b Basta, George, 36 e Bastile taken, 46 b Bast wick, 34 a Batalha church built, 57 d Batavia founded, 36 a
-----conquest of, 50 b, 54 d
Batavian republic, 50 a, 52 a Bath abbey church, 6 a, 60 e Batteux, Ch., 64 b Batthori, Christopher, 32 d
-----Stephen, 32 d
-----Sigismond, 32 d
Battle of Agria, 32 d, 33 c; Alcazar-quiver, 31 a; Almanza-, 42 d; Almenara, 42 b; Arbi, 57 b; Arques, 30 d; Aughrim, 38 d ; Austerlitz, 63 c, e, 67 a; Baden mount 2 a; Basque roads, 50 b; Bautzen, 50 a; Bayana, 29 f; Bedford, 2 a; Belleisle, 42 d; Bereteskov, 41 d; Benevento, 6 h ; Belgrade, 43 e; Bicocca, 26d,27 a; Blenheim, 42 d, 43 c; Bo-gesund, 28 e; Bosnia, 28 c; Botbwell bridge, 38 c; Boyne, 38 b; Brandeiz, 36 c; Breiter-feld, 36 g; Brienne, 50 a; Bulzac, 33 e; Bunker’s hill, 49 f; Burkersdorf, 48 b; Buxa,
1 49 c; Camperdown, 50 b; Cappel, 28 a; Cerisolles, 26 d; Choczim, 41 d; Clusin, 36 g, i; Coutras, 30 d; Dresden, 50 a; Evlau, 67 a; Ferrol, 50 b; off cape Finisterre, 42 d ; Fleurus, 39 c; Flodden, 26 b; Freiburg, 47 c; Friedland, 67 a; Galves, 33 c; Grochow, 67 a; Gross-Jagersdorff, 48 b, f ; Herftt, 33 d; Hochkirchen, 48 b; La Hogue, 38 b, 63 a; Hieres islands, 50 b; Jena, 50 a; Kunnersdorf, 48 b, f; Leig-nitz, 48 b; Leipsic, 66 b; Lu-gosch, 47 d, 49 a; Lund, 41a;
Lutzen, 50 a; Marignano, 28 a; Meshed, 49 b; Mohacz, 28 c, 29 c, 40 g, 41 f; Moultan, 49 c; Navara, 28 a; Navarino,
50	b, 67 a; Nile, 67 b; Nissa, 40 g, 41 f; Ostrolenka, 67 a; Pavia,26d,27a,f,59a; Peter-wardein, 43 e; Plassey, 49 c ; Pultowa, 63 a ; Ravenna, 27 f; Salamanca, 67 a; Saldanha bay, 50 b; Testry, 4 c ; Thion-ville, 34 b; Tournay, 50 b; Trafalgar, 67 a ; Yimiera, 51 b; cape St. Vincent, 50 b; Vittona, 67 a; on the Volga, 29 b; Wagram, 67 a; White Mountain, 36 c ; Winwidfield, 4 a; Zenta, 40 g, 41 f; Zorn-dorf, 48 b
Batu Khan, 17 f, n Baumparten, A., 64 b Bavana, 4 c, 43 c, 47 c, 52 c, 66 a, 67 b
Bavarians invade Italy, 3 b Baxter, botanist, 70 b
-------Rich., 63 e
Bayana, battle at, 29 f Bayezid I., 19 1. 23 i; II. 23 i Bayle, 63 e, 64 b Bayonets introduced, 42 c, 63 a Bayonne, conferences of, 30 d;
treaty of, 50 a Beaton, archbps., 26 b Beatrice of Portugal, 18 a Beattie, Jas., 64 b, 65 a Beaumarchais, 62 d, 65 c Beaumont, Frae., 61 a Beccari, Agost., 61 b Beccaria, death of, 62 c Beccafumi, Domenico, 68 b Becher, 64 c Becket, Thomas, 14 d
----------------Society of, 24 d
Beddowes, Thomas, 70 b Bede, the Venerable, 5 b, 7 b Bedford, earl of, 34 a; duke of,
51	a
Bedloe, 38 b
Bedmar, conspiracy of, 35 c Beejanuggur, 33 e Beethoven, 65 d Begarelli, Antonio, 68 c Behaim, Martin, 22 b, 29 g Beblol Lodi, 23 n Behn, Aph., 65 a Behram, 23 n
Behring's Strait discovered, 64 a Beiram Khan, 33 e Bejapore, 29 f, 41 h Bekker, 67 e Bela II., 15 c; III., 15 c
----king of Hungary, 17 g
Belem founded, 37 e Belgium, 36 a, 39 c, 40 c; ceded to Austria, 43 c, 62 b; convention, 48 b; acquired by France, 47 a, 50 a, 52 a, c ; independence of, 47 a, 52 a Belgian and Dutch provinces separated, 36 a
Belgic revolution, 62 a, 66 a, b Belgium and Holland, union of,
52	a
Belgrade, 21 k, 29 c, 40 g, 41 f, 43 e, 45 a, b, 47 d, 65 f Belisarius, 3 c, e, f Bell, sir Charles, 70 a, b Bellamy, 65 b, d Bellay, Mart, and Guil., 60 d Belleisle captured by the English,
---------gen., 42 c, 43 i
Bellew, major, 60 b
Bellingham, 51 a
Bellini, Gian, and Gentile, 68 c
-------65 d
Bellman, 65 b
Belloto, Bern., 68 c
Bells first used, 3 d
Belsham, W., 70 c
Belts crossed bv Swedes, 41 b
Bembo, Piet., 60 d, 61 b
Belvedere Vienna, 64 e
Bemusat, 67 e
Benakhi, 49 a
Benary, 67 e
Bencoolen ceded to England, 52 a Bender taken by the Russians, 48 f, 49 a
Benedetti, Aless., 60 c Benedict (pope) I., 3d; II., 5
11 a; VI., 11 a; VII., 11 a; VIII., 13 a; IX., 13 a; X., 13 a; XL, 19 a; XII., 19 a; XIII., 22 a, 44 b; XIV., 44 b, 48 a
Benedictines, foundation of the, 3 d; reformation of, 35 h Benevente, pres, of Chili, 65 b Benevolences, 26 c Benevoli, 60 f
Bengal conquered, 23 n; Fakhr 0a din, king of, 23 n; reduced by the Moguls, 29 f, 33 e; ceded to England, 46 c, 49 c, 62 b Beniviem, Ant., 60 c Benjamin of Tudela, 15 b Bennett, 65 d
— zoologist, 70 b Bentham, Jeremy, 66 c< 70 a Bentinck, lord W., 52 f, 54 d, 66a
Bentivoglio, 60 d Bentley, 63 e Benvenute, 68 c Beornwulf, 8 a Beranger, 65 c Berar, 29 f, 33 e Berbice reduced, 50 b; ceded to England, 52 a Berengarius, 13 f Berenger, 24 a
--------1., king of Italy, 8 e;
II., 10 e
Beresford, gen., 51 b Beresina, crossing of the, 53 e Bergen, 13 c, 17 c Bergen-op-zoom, 43 a Bergerac, pacification of, 30 d Berghem, Nic., 69 b Bfrigard, C. de Guill., 60 b, 64 b Berkeley, Wm., 64 b Berlin academy, 44 c; decree, 50 a; royal castle, 64 e; takeo by the Russians, 48 b, f, 53 c; university, 53 c, 67 e Bermuda occupied by the English, 37 e
Bermudo I., at Oviedo, 6 c --------II., Leon and the Asturias, 10 c ; 111., 12 a Bernadotte, general, 50 a, 52 c St. Bernard, 6 e, 15 b, 24 a, 52 c Berne, 28 a, 52 b Berners, lady Juliana, 22 b, 24 b Bernhard, k. of Italy, 8 e
--------duke of Weimar, 59 a
--------musician, 24 c '
Berni, Fran., 61 b Bernicia, kingdom of, 2 a, 4 a Bernini, G. L., 64 e Bernis, ministry of, 46 b Berno, 11 a
Bernstorff the younger, 48 c
--------the elder, 48 c
Bernouilli, J., 64 c Bern, duke de, 50 a, 66 a, 72 Berthier, 50 a, 52 b, g Berthollet, 67 c, e, 70 b Berwick captured, 20 c; pacification of, 34 a
--------duke of, 42 b
Berytus taken, 15 e Berzelius, 67 e, 70 b Bessarabia acquired by Russia, 53 e, 54 a
Bessarion, card., 22 b Besschey, Balt, 69 a Bestuchef-Riumin, count, ministry of, 48 f Bethlem Gabor, 36 e
--------Stephen, 36 e
Bewick, Th., 69 c Beza, Theod., 59 e Bhima Deva, 23 n Bhoja, 23 n
Bhurtpore, siege of, 54 d Bianchi, 52 f
—;------sect of, 19 a
Bianca Maria, 21 h Bible translations, 9 a, 26 c, 28 b, e, 34 a Bible society, 52 g Bibliotheque <Ju Roi, 63 e Bijhat, 70 b Bicbeno, 66 c Bicocca, 26 d, 27 a Bigge. W. lied., 69 c Bigland, John, 70 c Bignon, 67 d Bilboa relieved, 51 c Bill of rights, 38 a, 42 e, 62 a Billington, 65 d Billung, Herman, 10 e Biographical writers, 64 d, 70 c Biographic Universeile, 70 c Biot, 67 e, 70 b Bird, Fr., 64 e Bird, Wm., 60 f Birger, S., 19 e Birger, k. of Sweden, 17 d Binhingharo, riots at, 46 c -Biron, due de, 34 b, 44 f, 45 a Biscay, insurrection in, 51 c Bishop, musician, 65 d Bishop, title of, first usurped, 5 a Bishops, American, 48 a; Constantinople,3 d; become counts, 11 a; first called to national assemblies, 6 d; expelled parliament, 34 a; of Rome, 3 d Bishoprics founded, 9 a Bissett, Robert, 70 c Bistamia, revolt of, 41 h Bithynia, 19 1 Bitonto, victory of, 44 a Black, chemist, 70 b Black code, 41 k Black eagle, order of, 44 c Black-guard, Hungarian, 21 k Blackheath, defeat on, 20 d Black hole, Calcutta, 49 c Blackmore, Rich., 65 a Black nobles of Venice, 56 b Blackstone, 62 c, 63 d Blackwood's Mag., 67 d Blagrove, 65 d Blair, 65 a Blair, Jo., 64 d Blake, adm., 38 b, 40 b Blakoslav, 32 c Blanchard, 64 a Blanchard, James, 69 e Blanche of Castile, 16 f Bland, 70 b
Blemmidas, Nicephoros, 17 a Blenheim, 64 e Blitbeman, W„ 60 f Bloch, 70 b Bloemart, Ab., 69 b Biois, Peter de, 15 b Blois, 26 d, 27 f, 30 d Blomfield, 67 e Blonde), 24 b Blondel, Fr., 64 e Bloomfield, Robt, 65 a Blotswen, 13 c Blount, sir John, 42 d Blow, John, 65 d Blucher, prince, 50 a, 52 c, 53 e Blumauer, 65 c Blumenbach, 64 c Blumenhagen, 65 c Boahoddi lbu Shadded, 15 b Board of control, 49 c Boccaccino, Camillo, 68 c Boccaccio, 18 i, 19 b, 24 b Boccanegra, Simon, 18 i Boccherini, 65 d
Bqchmer, J., 63 d Bochnia, salt works at, 17 f * Bocksbammer, 70 a Boczkai, Stephen, of Transylvania, 36 e
Boden’s, col., professorship, 67 e Bodin, J., 59 d Bodmer, 65 c '
Bodr, de, 64 e
Body-guards appointed, 20 d Boerhaave, H., 64 c Boethius, 3 c Boetie Etienne, 60 b Bogdan-Kmielniski, 36 i Bogesund, defeat of, 28 e Bojislas, d. of Pomerania, 36 h Bogota independent, 55 b Boguslawsky, 65 b Bohemians, 6 d, 11 a, 68 a Bohemia, first duke of, 3a; kingdom, of founded, 8 g; incorporated with the empire, 18 g; admitted to the diet, 43 d ; united to Austria, 58 b; invaded, etc., 47 c, 48 b Bohemian literature, 32 c Bohemond, 13 b, 15 e Bobm, Jac., 64 b Boieldieu, 65 d Boileau, Nic., 65 c Boisdural, 70 b Bojader, cape, doubled, 20 a Bokhara conquered, 7 e, 17 n Bol, F., 69 b
Boleslas, k. of Bohemia, 10 e Boleslas I., of Poland, 11 c; II., 13 c; III., 15 c; IV., 15 c; V., 17 f
Boleyn, Anne, 26 c Bolingbroke, lord, 42 d, 64 b Bolivar, commander, 55 b Bologna, Vitale da, 68 d Bologna under the Visconti, 18 i; insurrections in, &c., 62 e; university, 7b; 14 f Bolognese, Franco, 68 d Bolton, 63 c
Bombay ceded to England, 41 h Bombs first used, 59 a Bonsld, 67 d, 70 a Bonaparte family, 72 Bonarruotti, Michael Angelo, 68 a Bonaveutura, 24 a Bonde, Knutson, 22 e Bonfinius, 22 b
Boniface, pope, II., d 3; III., 5 a; IV., 5 a; V., 5a; VI., 9 a; VII., 11 a; VIII., 16 i, 19 a; IX., 19 a, 22 a Boninsegna, Duccio di, 68 b Bonn university, 67 e Bonner, 26 c Bonnet, 64 c Bonnet, Ch., 64 b Bonnington, R., 69 c Bonvines, battle of, 16 f Book trade, 13 b, 24 d, 59 c, 63 c, 67 e
Bordone, Paris, 68 c Borelli, 64 c, 70 b Borghese, Pauline, 50 a Borgia, Alexander, 22 a, 53 a
-------Cssar, 22 a
------- Lucretia, 22 a
Borgognone, 24 c
Bornholm ceded to Sweden, 41 b
Boris, 73
Boris Godunov, emp. of Russia, 33 b, 36 k Borjo, cardinal, 35 g Borne Ludwig, 65 c, 67 d Borodini, defeat at, 53 e Boroughs created, 30 a, c Borroraean league, 32 b Borromini, F., 64 e Boscan, Juan, 61 b Boscawen, admiral, 46 c Boscawen, general, 46 b Boschino, Marco, 68 c Bosnia, defeat of the Turks at, 28 d; overrun by the Turks, 43 e Boson founds the kingdom of Burgundy cis-jurane, 8 e Bossi, 68 d Bossuet, 40 a, 64 b Bostangis established, 29 c Boston, UnitedStates, 37e, 46 c, 49 f
Botanic gardens, 60 c Botanists, 64 c, 70 b Botany, revival of, 60 c Botany Bay, first settlers in, 46 c Both, Jo., 69 b; Ant., 69 b Bothwell, earl of, 30 b Botta, 70 c
Botta takes Genoa, 43 f Botti, marshal di, 47 e Bouchard, bishop of Worms, 13 b Bouchardon, 64 e Boucher, Fran., 69 d Bou6, 70 b
Bonfflers invades Holland, 42 c Rouillt, 70 c
Bouillon, Godfrey of, 13 b, 15 e Boulogne given up to France, 26 c Boullonge, Bon, 69 d
---------Louis, 69 d
Bourbon, isle of, 50 b, 64 d Bourbon-Anjou, house of, 72 Bourbon family compact, 46 b 47 g
Bourbons expelled from France, 66a
-- restoration of, 66 a, c Bourbon, house of, 30 d, 34 b, 39 c, 42 c, 50 a, 72
. ■ house of, in the Sicilies,
44 a
--------duke of Milan, 27 a
--------duke de, ministry of, 42 c
Bourdeaux pillaged, 8 e; university, 22 b
Bourdeaux, Henry, duke of, 50 a,
72
Bourdon, Seb., 69 e
7G
Bourdonaye, la, 46 b Bourdonnais, la, 49 c Bourgeois, sir Francis, 69 c Bourges, the little king of, 20 d; pragmatic sanction of, 20 c; university founded, 22 b Bourguignoo, Jacques C„ 69 d •
-------------Guillaume, 69 d
Bourmont, 50 a Bourne, Sturges, 51 a Bourquier, 52 b Bouterweck, 70 a Bouvadilla, 29 g Bowdich, T. E., 70 c Bowditch, 70 b Bowles, Wm., 65 a Boyar Marouzoff, 36 k Boyars, 33 b Boyd, Mr. Shot, 51 c Boydell, John, 69 c Boyer, 55 b, c Boyle, Sir Robt., 64 c Braara, van, 54 e Brabangons, 57 b Brabant, 27 g, 43 a Bracciolini, 22 b, 61 b Braddock, genera), 46 c Bradley, 64 c
Bradwardine, Thomas, 19 b, 24 a Brady, Rob., 64 d Braganza, John, duke of, 35 a
---------Alfonso, duke of, 20 a
---------house of, 39 a, 51 b, 72
Braham, 65 d Brahe, count, 48 d Brahe, Tycho, 32 c, e, 59 e, 60 c Bramante, 59 e, 60 e Brancaleone, 16 f Brand, John, 70 c Brandenburg, house of, 36 c; first elector of, 73 ; league of, 39 c ; margravate of, 10 e Brandes, 67 d Brandreth executed, 51 a Brandt, 48 c Branston, 69 c Branlome, 60 d Braschi, pope Pius VI.. 48 a Brasen-nose college, Oxford, 61 d Brazil discovered, 29 g; colonized, 26 a, 58 b; diamond mines, 63 b, 45 f; revolts from Portugal, 66 b; revolution in, 55 b, 66 a ; emancipation of, 49 e; overrun by the Dutch, 37 e; recovered from, 39 a, 41 k ; population, 55 b Breakspeare, Nicholas, 15 a Breda, 32 a, 36 a, 38 b, 40 b Bredow, 70 c Bree, V., 69 b Brehon laws, 34 a Breislac, 70 b Bremen, 44 e, d, 53 c Bresanfon. Henry of, 14 b Brescia ceded to Bavaria, 52 -c Breslau burnt, 17 f; peace of, 44 c ; university of, 53 c Bresse surrendered, 34 b Brest, victory off, 46 c Bretagne, Britons settle in, 2 a ; parliament of, 30 d; united to France, 20 e, 26 d Brethren of Charity founded, 31 e Breligni, peace of, 18 f Breton, cape, 45 f, 46 b, c, 49 f Bretonne, de la, 65 c Bretwalda, title of, 2 a Bretwalda I., 2 a; II., 2 a; HI., 2a; IV.. 4a; V., 4 a; VI., 4a; VII., 4 a
Breughel, Peter, 69 a; Joh., 69 a Bridge, 70 b
Bridge, London, built, 13 b Bridgewater canal, 63 c Bridgewater treatises, 70 a Bridport, captain, 50 b Brienne, minister of finance, 46 b Brienne, Walter of, 18 i Brienne, victory at, 50 a Brill, Matth., 69 a; Paul, 69 a Brill taken, 32 a; restored, 36 a Brisach, 36 c, 34 k, 40 e Bristol, riots at, 51 a Britain, 2 a, 4 a, 6 a, 8 a, 10 a, 12 b, 14 d, 18 e, 26 b, c,?4a, 42 e, 46 c, 50 b
Britain, first united parliament, 42 d ; Christianity introduced into, 4 a
British empire in India, 49 c British colonies, 66 d British legion in Spain, 51 c British museum, 63 e, 64 e Britons settle in America, 2 a Britton, J., 64 e Brodie, sir Benj., 70 b Broglio, general, 42 c'
Bromberg canal, 48 b Brome, Alex., 61 a Bromley, 69 c Brongniart, 70 b Bronte destroyed, 52 f Bronzino, Angiolo, 68 a Brook, lord, 34 a, 37 e, 61 a Brooke, Hy., 65 a Broome, Wm., 65 a Brougham, lord, 51 a, 66 c, 67 c, d, e, 70 a
Broussel, imprisoned, 34 b Brown, count, defeat of, 47 c Brown, J., 64 c Browne, botanist, 70 b Browne, J. H., 65 a Browne, Thomas, 70 a Browne, Wm.,61 a Brownists, rise of, 31 e, 35 1 Bruce discovers the source of the Nile, 46 c
Bruce, Robert, 16 d Bruges, Roger of, 24 c Bruges, congress of, 27 f Brummel, Ant, 24 c Brun, le, 50 a Brun, Charles le, 69. e
GENERAL INDEX.
Brunanburgh, victory of, 10 a, b Brune, 52 c Brunehilda, 4 c Brunehilda, 2 c Brunelleschi, 22 b, 57 d, 68 a Brunn, F., 65 c Brunne, Rob. de, 19 b Bruno, Geor., 60 b Brunswick, house of, 42 e Brunswick, New, colonised, 37 e Brunswick-Oels, retreat of, 52 c Brunswick, revolution in, 52 c Brussels, 40 b, 43 a, 52 a Bruyere, la, 64 b Bryant, Jacob. 70 c Brydges, Sir E., 65 a Buccaneering, 37 e, 41 k Bucer, 27 e
Buchanan, G., 59 d, e, 60 d Bucharest, peace of, 53 e, 54 a;
conferences of, 49 a Buchholz, 65 c
Buckingham, duke of, 20 d, 34 a, 38 b, 65 a
Buckingham palace, 64 e Buckland, 70 a
Buckowina to Austria, 47 d, 49 a Buckshorn, John, 69 d Buda, 28 d, 29 c, 36 e, 40 g, 41 f Huda university, 22 b Buddaeus, J., 64 b Buenos Ayres, 33 f, 49 e, 50 b Buffalo canal, 67 c Buffon, le Clerc, count, 64 c Bugei surrendered to France, 34 b, 35 e Bugia, 27 f Bulgaria, 5 c, 11 c, d Bulgarians, 3 e. 4 c, 11 d Bulgarin, Tltad., 65 b Bulgarius, 15 b
Bull, golden, 17 g, 56 a; Vineani Domini, 44 b; Unigenitus,44 b; Ex illh die, 44 b Bull, Dr. Jno., 60 f Bull fights, 60 a Bulow, 53 c
Bulwer, Sir E. L., 65 a, 67 e Bundelcund, raja of, 37 c Buonaparte, Jerome, 50 a,51 c,72
----------Joseph. 50 a, 52 f, 72
----------L. Nap., 50 a, 72
----------Nap., see N&poleon.
Buonarotto, Mich. Ang., 61 b Buoncompagno, pope Gregory XIII.,31 e
Bufchiello, Barb., 61 b Burdett, sir F., 50 b, 51 a, 66 a, 67 d, e
Bureau of longitude, 67 e Bureo, Martin Van, 55 a Burford, victory of, 6 a Burger, 65 c Burgh, Hubert de, 16 e Burgher troops, 57 b Burgiaruk, 13 f Burgos cathedral built, 57 d Burgoyne, general, 46 c, 49 f Burgundians, 3 a, 20 a Burgundians, spurious, 18 a Burgundy, duchy of, 21 f
----------duke of, 10 d
----------John, duke of, 57 b
-----------Philip,	duke of, 20 d
------------ kingdom of, 8 e, f;
2 c, 4 c, 12 e, 20 e, 21 h
----------house of, 20 e, 58 b,
72
Buridan, John, 24 a Burke, 46 c, d, 51 a, 63 d, 67 e,d Burke, colonel, 50 b Burkersdorf, victory at, 48 b Burlamaqui. 63 d Burleigh, 30 a, c, 59 e Burleigh, Northamptonshire, 60e Burleigh, Waller, 24 a Burley, 24 a Burlington, lord, 64 e Burmese, 50 b Burnet, pres, of Texas, 55 b Burnet, Dp., 64 d Burnouf, 67 e Burns, Robt., 65 a Burton, 34 a Busbequius, 60 d Bush, Leop. v., 70 b Bushnel, Jno., 64 e Bussy, 49 c Bustamenti, 55 b Bute, earl of, 46 d Butler answers the freethinkers, 44 b
Butler, Sam., 61 a Butrinto ceded to Venice, 43 f Buxar, victory at. 49 c Buyide dynasty, 11 e Byana, kingdom of, founded, 23 n Byddel, 60 d
Byng, sir G. adm., 42 d, 46 b Byron, lord, 54 a, 65 a, 67 e Byzantine empire, 3 e Byzantine historians, 67 e
Cabades, 3 f Cabal of the Sixteen, 30 d Cabal ministry, 38 b Cabanis, Peter John, 70 b Cabot, John, 24 d; Seb., 20 d, 24 d
Cabral, 29 g Cabul, 37 c, 49 c, 54 c Caccini, G., 60 f ■ Cade. Jack. 20 d Cadet, school at, Paris, 63 a Cadiz, 30 c, 31b, 47 g, 51 c Cadwaladyr, 4 a Caen university founded, 22 b Csesalpinus, Andr., 60 b, c Caffa ceded to Genoa, 17 I Cairo, 5 d. 11 b, e, 29 c, 54 a Cajetan. cardinal, 27 e, 28 b Calabrese, il, 68 b Calabria conquered, 8 e, 12 e Calais retained by the English. 20 e; taken by the French, 30 d
Calas, John, unjust execution of, 62 c
Calat Anosor, victory at, 10 c Calatrava, order of, 14 b Calcutta, 49 c; bishopric, 54 d;
colleges, 67 e Caldara, Polidoro, 68 b Calder, sir Robert. 50 b Calderon, 35 b, 59 e, 61 b Calendar reformed, 31 e Calendario, Filippo, 57 d Calicut acquired by the Dutch, 40 b; subdued by Hyder Ali, 49 c
Calib, 8 c
California, 29 g, 33 f Calistus II., 15 a; III., 22 a Calixtines, 21 i Calixtus Xanthopulus, 19 b Callinicus, 3 c, 5 b Calmar, 36 f, 36 g; union of, 19 c, 22 d, 28 e, 56 a Calonne, minister, 46 b, 62 d Calvin, 26 d, 27 e, 31 e, 59 e Camarillas, 51 c, 66 a Cambaceres. 50 a Cambray, 27 g, 40 b; congress of, 42 b, c, d, 43; league of, 26 c, d, 27 a, f. 53 b Cambridge platform adopted, 37 e; university, 11 b, 17 a ; and Oxford universities, 61 d Camden, lord, 51 a; Wm., 60 d Cameramans, 38 c, 40 a Camisards, revolt of, 42 c Cammucini, Vincenzio, 68 b Camoens, Luis de, 31 a, 59 e,
61	b
Campanula, Th., 59 e, 60 b, 64 b Campanes of Lombardy, 15 b; of Novaro, 13 b
Campbell, col., 64 e; Thos., 65 a, 67 e
Campen, Van, 60 e Camper, 70 b
Campi, Giulio, 68 c; Bernardino, 68 c
Campo Forraio, peace of, 50 a, 52 c
Campomanes, ministry of, 47 g Cana, 29 g
Canada a royal colony, 41 k; ceded by France, 46 b; captured by the English, 46 b, c; colonised, 55 c ; constitution, 49 f; rebellion, 50 b; divided into Upper aod Lower, 46 c Canadian affairs, debate on, 51 a Canal fund, in U. S., 55 a; in England, 63 c Canaletti, Ant., 68 c Candia founded, 8 c, 9 e ; invaded, 35 c; besieged, 35 c ; takeu, 39 d
Candeish conquered, 33 e Candy captured by the Dutch, 47 a; by the English, 50 b Canitz, 65 c
Canning, 50 b, 66 b, 67 e; ministry of, 51 a, 66 a Cano, Alonso, 69 c Canon of the mass, 3 d Cauon law, 15 b, 56 c Cantacuzene, John, 19 b, k Canterbury, archbp. of, 3 d, 5 a,
14	c ; cathedial, 57 d Canton, 50 b, 54 e Cantuarians defeated, 4 a Canute IV., 13 c; VI., of Den.,
15	c ; k. of England, 13 c, 57 b Cape of Good Hope, 20 a, 50 b;
colonised, 40 b, 50 b, 52 e Cape de Verd islands, 20 a Capefigue, 70 c Capet, Hugh, 72 Capetians, 10 d, 12 d, 14 e, 16 f, 18 f, 20 e, 56 a, 58 a, 72 Capitation tax in France, 62 d Capitularies of Charlemagne, 56 c Capo d’lstria, 54 a Cappel, 28 a
Caps, origin of the party, 44 e Captain, rank of, limited to the nobility, 46 b Capuchins, 27 e Carabineers, formation of, 59 a Caraccas founded, 31 b, 33 f; company, 49 e
Caraffa, pope, Paul IV., 31 e Cara Jusuf, 23 m Caramania, revolt of, 37 a Caraman Ogli, 19 1 Carbonari in Italy, 66 b Cardan, Jer., 60 b Cardano, Hier., 60 c Cardanus, 59 e
Cardinals only curates, 3 d ; college of, 19 a; hat, 31 e; foreign, 60 a Cardis, 41 b, e Carelia ceded to Russia, 33 b Carew.Thos., 61 a Carey, W., 67 e Cariani, Giovanni, 68 c Caribert, 2 c
Carical restored to France, 46 c Carion, 60 d Carissimi, Giac., 60 f Carlisle, 51 a; fortress of, built, 12 c
Carlo, St., theatre of, 64 e Carloman, 6 d, 8 e, f, g, 72 Carlos, Don. 30 b, 42 b, 44 a, 51 c
Carlostadius, 27 e Carlovingian dynasty, 6 d, 10 d, 56 a, 72
----------empire, partition of,
8 e
Carlowitz, 39 d, 40 g, 41 d, e, f,
62	b
Carlsbad founded, 18 g; congress, 52 c Carltort house, 51 a Carmathians, 9 e
Carmelites, 15 a, 16 k Carnatic reduced, 41 h; desolated by Ilyder Ali, 49 c Carnot, 50 a, 67 a, 70 b Carobert, 18 k
Carolina settled, 41 k; granted to sir R. Heath, 37 e Caroline of Brunswick, 50 b Carotto, (iiovauni, 68 c Carpets, 60 a	,
Carracci, Ludovico, 59 e, 68 d; Annibale, 59 e, 68 d; Agos-tino, 59 e, 68 d
Carracciolo, Grambetiste, 68 b Carravaggio, 68 b Carriages, 60 a Carrots introduced, 59 b Carruci, Jacopo, 68 a Carstens, 69 a Cartagoo, Andrea del, 68 a Carte, Thos., 64 d Carteret, ministry of, 42 e Carteret’s voyage, 46 c Carthage, rased by the Arabs, 5 d Carthagena founded, 29 g; attacked, 45 f
Cartoons, Raphael. 59 c Cartwright, major, 66 a Carvagal, 47 e, g Carvalho, of Porobal, 46 a Carver, John, 37 e Caryl, 38 b
Casale seized by France, 39 c Caserta, palace of, 47 f, 64 e Cashman executed, 51 a Cashmire, 33 e, 49 c, 54 c Cashmire coats in France, 67 c Casimir (the restorer) of Poland, 13 c; the Just, 15 c; the Great, 19 g, 67 c; IV., 22 g, 36 i; brother of Vladislas,21 i; John, 73
Cassano, defeat at, 14 f, 52 c Cassini, 49 a, 64 c Castagna, pope, Urban VII., 31 e Castelfranco, Gio. Bart., di, 68 c Castiglioni acquired by Lombardy, 47 e
Castiglione, Benedetto, 68 d Castile, 6 c, 12 a, 27 f, 56 c
-------and Aragon, 20 b; and
Leon, 14 b, 16 b, 18 c Castilian cities, alliance of,20 b;
Cortes dissolved, 27 f Castillejo, Christ, de, 61 b Castles, baronial, 57 d Castle Howard, 64 e Castlereagh, lord, 51 a, 67 d Castleton castle, 57 d Castruccio, 18 i Catalans, 42 b
Catalonians revolt, 34 b, 35 b Catania, university of, 21 m, 22 b Catel, 65 d
Catharine Howard, 26 c; de Medici, 26 d ; Parr, 26 c ; of Portugal, 38 b; of Poland, 32 f; of Portugal, 42 a; I., of Russia, 45 a, 73; II., 48 f, 64 a, 73; of Spain, 26 c Cathedrals built, 57 d Catholic conspiracies, 30 c; emancipation in Ireland, 38 b, 51 a, 52 g; persecuted by the Goths, 2 b; faith in Spain, 2 b; in England, 30 c ; in France, 50 a; abolished in Scotland, 30 b; league, 28 b, 30 d, 36 c; rent, 51 a
Catinat, 39 c, 42 b Cato-street conspiracy, 50 b Cats, Jacob, 61 c Caltaro, 52 d
Cautionary towns, 34 a, 36 a Cavaliers, 34 a Cavalli, 60 f Cavallini, Pietro, 24 c Cavendish, 70 b Cavalry, 59 a, 63 a Cavedone, Giacomo, 68 d Cavendish, W., 59 e Caxamalca, 29 g (’axton, William, 20 d, 22 b, 24 b, 60 d
Cayenne, 37 e, 39 c, 50 b Cazan overrun, 17 f Ceawlin, 2 a Cecil, 30 c
Celestin II., 15 a; III., 15 a;
IV., 16 i; V., 16 i Celestines established, 16 i Celibacy, vow of, 5 a ; enforced, 10 a ; forbidden, 13 a Cellamar, conspiracy of, 42 c Cellini, Benv., 59 e, 60 Celtes, Conrad, 22 b Celts, 2 b, c Centlivre, Susan, 65 a Centuris, Magdeburg, 60 d Cenwalch, 4 a Ceolred, 6 a Ceolwulf, 4 a Cephalonia, 52 e Cerdic, 2 a, 8 a
-------last of the house of, 8 a
Ceres discovered, 70 b Cerigo, 43 f, 52 e Cerisolles, victory of, 26 d Cerulianus, Michael, 13 b Cervantes, 31 b, 35 a, 59 e, 61 b
Cesari, Giuseppe, 68 b Cesi, Bartolommeo, 68 d Cespedes, 69 c Cesti, 60 f
Ceuta, 20 a, 39 a, 47 g Cevennes, Huguenots of, 42 c Ceylon discovered, 26 a; settlements of, 36 a ; to the Dutch, 39 a, 47 a; to England, 50 a, b, 52 a
Chalcondylas, Demetrius, 22 b;
Laonicus, 22 b Chalmers, 70 a; Alex., 70 c Chalons-sur-Marne, 2 b, c
Chambers, sir Wm.,64 e Chambers erected in Prussia, 44/ c ; of re-union, 39 c Chambert, 65 d Chamisso, 65 c Champaigne, count of, 10 d Champagne, 26 d, 28 b, 35 c, 50 a
Champ de Mai, 6 d; de Mars,
2 c, 46 b
Champeau, William of, 24 a Champollion, 67 e Chang-ki-hur, 54 e Chantrey, F. L., 64 e Chapman, W., 59 e; Geo., 61 a Chappelow, L., 63 e Cbaptal, 67 c, e, 70 b Chardin’s Travels, 41 g Charibert, 4 c
Charitable Conferences, 35 h Charlemagne, 6 d, e, 7 b, 8 e, g, 56 c, 57 c, 72, 73 Charles of Anjou, 16 i, 72; archduke, of Austria, 42 b, d, 52 c; the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 21 f; king of Castile, 27 f; of Durazzo, 18 h ; I., of England, 31a, 58 a; II., 38 b. 64 a, 65 a; of France, 1., the Bald, 8 e, f, 72; II., the Fat, 8 e, f, g, 56 a, 72; HI., the Simple, 8 f, 10 d, 72; IV., the Fair, 18 f, 72; V., the Wise, 18 f, 72; VI., the Maniac, 18 f, 20 e, 7i; VII., 20 e, 72; VIII., 20 e, 72; IX., 30 d, 60 a, 72; X„ 50 a, 72; emp. of Germany, 73; III., 73; IV., 18 g, 73;
V.	, 26 d, 27 a, f, 28 b, 29 d, 31 a, 43 c, 58 a, d, 59 a, 73; ■
VI.	, emp., king of Naples and Sicily. 43 c, 44 a, 73; V1L, 73; Robert, of Hungary, 19 h; of Lorraine, 42 c; Albert of Modena, 52 e ; 1., king of Naples, 16 h; II., 18 k; II., of Naples and Sicily, 39 g; III., 44 a, 47 f; HI., of Sardinia, 43 h; Felix ofSardinia, 52 e; Emanuel I„ of Savoy, 31 c, 35 e, 71; II., of Savoy, 39 f; II., of Spain, 39 b; III., 47 g; IV., 47 g, 51 c, 72; V.,31b; Swerker, king of Sweden, 15 c; VIII., of Sweden, 22 d, e; IX., 36 g; X., 73; XL, 41 b, 73;
XII.	,41 b, 44e, 62 b,63 a,73;
XIII.	, 53 b, 73; XIV., 53 b, 73; Edward, the last pretender,
Charlestown founded, 41 k Charlotte, princess, 50 b Charron, P., 59 e, 60 b Charters burnt at Moscow, 41 e Charter, new to the E. I. Company, 50 b ; the French, 50 a, 66 a
Charter-houseschool, 59 e Chartered towns, rise of, 14 e Chanier, Alain, 24 b Chailists in England, 66 a Chatel, 30 d
Chatel Abbe, catholic church of,
• 52 g
Chateaubriand, 65 c, 67 d, 70 c Chateau-Cambresis, 30 d, 31 b, c, d
Chateau-Dauphin, 31 c Chateau Gaillard, gallant defence of, 16 e
Chatillon, congress of, 50 a Chatham, lord, 46 c, 50 b, 63 d Chattan and Quhele, combat between, 18 d
Chatterton, Thos., 65 a Chaucer, Geof., 24 b Chauliac, Guy de, 19 b Chaumont, treaty of, 50 b Chauncey, capt., 55 a Chaussee, de la, 65 c Chauvelin, abb£, 42 c, 46 b Chaves, marquis of, 51 c Cheetoo, 54 a Cheke, 59 e Chelsea college, 64 e Chemistry, rise of, 7 b; Arabian, lib; new system of, 67 e Chemists, 64 c, 67 e Chenier, 65 c Cherbourg docks, 67 a Cherubini, 65 d Cheruski, league of, 56 b Chesapeake caoal opened, 55 a Chess, game of, 3 f Chesterfield, lord, 64 b Chfizy, 67 e Chiabrera, 61 b Chiari, 65 b Chiaveri, Get., 64 e Chierasco, peace of, 34 b, 35 b, c, d, 58 b
Chigi collection of Antiquities, 64 e; pope, 40 a Childebert I.,2e; II., 2 b, c;
111.,	4 c, 6 d, 57 d Childeric I., 2 c; II., 2 c, 4 c;
111.,	6 d
Chilperic I., 2 c ; II., 6 d China, 3 e, 17 n,26a, 37 d, 41 e, i, 45 e, 49, d, 54 d, e, 63 c Chitodaswind, 4 a Ching-yih, 54 e Chintilla, 4 b
Chio taken, 31 c,39d,41 f Chippewa, victory of, 55 a Chitore captured, 23 n Chittoor taken, 33 e Chivalry, 6 d, 16 d, 17 a, 60 a Chladni, 70 b Chocolate introduced, 60 a Choczim, 36 i, 37 a, 41 d, 45 a, 48 f, 49 a
Choiseul, ministry of, 46 b Cholera, 50 b, 53 a. c, e, 51 c, 52 d, 54 a
Cliooch, defeat at, 54 c Chosroes I., 3 f; Il„ 5 e, f Choul, 31 a
Chout ceded to the Mahraltas, 45 d
Chrichton, the admirable, 30 b Christ Church college, Oxford, 61 d, 64 e
Christ’s Hospital, 59 e Christians persecuted in China, 41 h; Parthian empire, 3 f; in Spain, 8 c
Chnstiau slavery abolished, 50 b Christianity in Africa,5 a; Anglo. SaxoDS, 5 a; in Bohemia, 9 a, 11 a; in China, 35 h, 44 b, 45 e ; Denmark, 5 a, 9 c; in Germany, 5 a; Hungary, 11a; India, 26 a; in Normandy,
11	a; Poland, 11 a; Russia, 11a; Siam, 35 1; Tonnuin. 351
Christie, Mr. 67 d Christiern I. of Denmark, 22 c 73; II., 28 e, 58 a, 73; III. 28 e, 32 e, 73; IV.. 32 e, 36 f 73; V., 41 a, 73; Vl.,44d’, 73; VII., 48 c, 53 a, 73 Christina of France, q. of Sweden, 35 e, 36 g, 41 b, 73 Christmas, Ger., 60 e Christopher Batthori, 32 d; of Bavaria, 22 d; I., of Denmark, 17 b; 11., 19 c; pope, 11 n Cbrysoleras, Emanuel, 19 b ChrystallogTaphy, 70 b Chubb, freethinker, 44 b Chun-Chi, emp. of China, 37 d, 41 i,
•Chund Beebee, 33 e Church history, 5 a, 7 a, 9 a, 11 a, 13 a, 15 a, 16 i, 19 a, 22 a, 27 e, 31 e, 35 h, 40 a, 44 b, 48 a, 52 f
Church, Gallican, 16 f; Greek and Latin, 9 a, 16 i, 23 i; of Jerusalem, etc., 6 a; property confiscated, 28 f, 30 b, 46 b, 48 a, f, 52 g; rates objected to,
Churchill, Wm., 65 a Chwofski, 29 b, 36 i, 73 Chemists, 70 b Ciaccaldi, 43 f
Cibber, Colley, 65 a; Gab., 64 e Cicognara, 70 c Cid, the, 12 a, 14 b, 24 b Cienca, Academia de la gava.
19 b	67
Cienfuegos, 65 b Cignani, Carlo, 68 d Cigoaroli, Gian., 68 c Cigoli, Lodovico Cardi di, 68 a Cilicia captured by the Greeks, lid
Cilley, carl of, 21 i; Barbara, couutess of, 21 k Cimabue, 17 a, 24 c, 65 d, 68 a Cinq-Mars beheaded, 34 b Cintra, convention of, 51 b Cione, Andreadi,24 c,57 d, 68 a Circassia overrun, 17 f Circuits, England divided into, 17 a
Circumnavigation of the globe, first, 29 g
Cisalpine republic, 50 a, 52 c, e Cities, free, established in Spain,
12	a	^
City representatives, 14 b, 18 c,
24 d, 56 a
Ciudad Rodrigo stormed by Wellington, 51 b
Civilisation, 15 f, 22 d, 59 d, 63 e, 67 e
Civil law, 15 b, 17 a, 56 c Civil list, 42 e, 62 d Clair, St., general, 49 f Clamange, N icholas de, 22 b, 24 a Clapperton, capt., 70 c Claprenede, 65 c Clare, earl of, 34 a Clarendon, lord, 38 b, 64 a; constitutions of, 14 d Clarendon press, Oxford, 64 e Clarke, Dr. Ed. D., 70 c; Dr. Geo., 64 e; Dr. J., 65 d; S., 63 e
Classes of society formed, 56 a Claude, 40 a
Clausembourg, diet of, 36 e Clement II., pope^.13 a; III., 15 a; IV., 16 i; V., 19 a;
VI., 19 a, 27 e; VII., 19 a;
- VIII., 22 a, 31 e, 35 h; IX., 40 a, 44 b; X., 40 a; XI., 40 a; XII.,44b, 64 e; XIII., 48 a; XIV., 48 a Clemeoti, 65 d
Clergy and monks,quarrels of, 10 a Clerk, Jno., 67 a Clermont, council of, 12 d, 13 b Clerselier, Cl. de, 64 b Cleves,28 b,36c,41c; Anne of,26c Clifford, 38 b
Clinton, general, 46 c; De Witt, 55 a; Fynes, 70 c Clissau, defeat of, 44 e Clive, lord, 46 c, 62 b Clodion, 2 c Clodomir, 2 c Cloquet, 70 b
Clotaire II., 2 c, 4 c; III., 4 c Clotilda, 2 b
Clovis 1., 2 b, c, 56 a; II., 4 c ;
III.,	4 c
Coal discovered, 16 e, 24 d Cobad, 3 f
Cobbett, 50 b, 51 a, 66 a, 67 d Coburg, general, 48 f, 52 a Cocceji, death of, 62 c Cochin conquered, 26 a Cochrane, lord, 50 b, 54 a; earl of Mar, 20 c
Codex Carolinus, 47 f
GENERAL INDEX.
Code, Justinian, 66 c ; Napoleon, 50 a ; of St. Louis, 56 c Codinus, George, '22 b Coimbra, 26 a, 61 d Coke, sir Edward, 34 a Colbert, ministry of, 39 c, 62 d, 63 c
Colborne, sir John, 55 c Colchis devastated, 3 e Colebroke, H. T., 67 e Coleridge, S. T., 65 a, 70 a Colet, 59 e, 61 d Coligni, 33 f
Collard, Royer, 67 d, e, 70 a Colleges in Oxford and Cam-bridge, 60 e; for English Catholics, 30 c; Roy. Paris, 59 e ; United States, 55 a ; founded, 17 a
Collier, J. P., 65 a Collingwood, admiral, 50 b Collins, Win., 65 a ; freethinker, 44 b
Colman, Geo. the elder, 65 a;
the younger, 65 a Cologne, Frauco von, 24 c Cologne, 43 c, 47 c, 53 c, 57 d Coloman, 13 c, 15 c Colombia, 55 b Colombo, 26 a, 40 b . Colon, Alex., 60 e Colonies in Hrazil, 26 a; Danish,
. 59 c; Dutch, 59 c; English, 33 f, 37 e, 49 f, 58 b, 59 c, 62 a; French, 45 f, 58 b, 59 c; Portuguese, 35 a Colonna, 19 a Colte, Max., 60 e Columbus, 20 b, 22 b, 29 g Combermere, lord, 54 d Comedians, English, 61 c, 65 a Comedy, first English, 61 a Comet, first whose course is accurately described, 19 b Comines, Philip de, 22 b, 21 f, 59 e
Commandere of the Faithful, 29 c Commercial companies at Ostend, 63 c ; Trieste, 43 d Commercial panic, 50 b , Commercial treaty of Austria with Russia, 47 t; between England and the Netherlands, 27 g; England, Sweden, and the Netherlands, 59 c; Japan, 26 a; Spain with Denmark, 44 d ; Sweden with England, fire., 32 f Committee of safety, 38 b, 50 a Common pleas, court of, 16 e, 56 c
Commonwealth, 38 b Comorra, 36 c, 37 a Comnena, Anna, 15 b Comneni, 13 d, 15 d, 17 1 Compact of Vienna, 47 c Compostella, 27 f Comuneros, 27 f Cornyn,sir J., 16 d Conception founded, 29 g Concini, Marechal d’Ancre, 34 b Concordat with the pope, 21 b,26 d, 27 f, 47 g, 48 a Concordia discors, 31 e Conde, prince of, 30 d, 34 b, 39 b, c, 59 a, 70 c Conde reduced by the duke of York, 50 b Conder, Josiah, 70 c Condillac, Et. B., 64 b Condivi, Ascani, 62 b i Condorcet, 67 d Condottieri, 18 i, 57 b Confederation of German princes, 47 c, 48 b; of the Rhine, 50 a; act of, 52 b
Conferences of Bucharest, 49 a; Poissy, 30 d
Confession of Augsburg, 27 e, 28 b Conflans, 20 e; admiral, 46 c Congo settled, 31 a Congregation of St. Maur, 35 b ; atTorgau, 31 e
Congress, first colonial, 49 f; at Aix-la-Chapelle, 66 b; Cam-bray, 42 b, c ; Carlsbad, 66 b ; Chatillon, 50 a; New-York, 49 f; Philadelphia, 49 f; Ras-tadt, 50 a; Reichenbach, 47 c; Soissons, 42 c ; Teschen, 47 e; Troppau, 52 d ; Verona, 52 d Congreve, Win., 65 a; rockets, 67 a
Connecticut settled, 37 e Conon, pope, 5 a Conrad I., erop. of Germany, 10 e, 14 f; II., emp., 12 e, 73;
III.	, 73; IV., 16 g, 73; rebellion of, 12 e; d. of Lorraine, 73; k. of Poland, 17 f; k. of Sicily, 16 h
Conraddin, k. of Sicily, 16 h Consarbruck, 40 e Conservatiori, or public singing schools in Italy, 65 d Conservatives, 66 a Conspiracy of Amboise, 30 d; Cato-street, 50 b; Col. Des-pard, Fieschi count of Lavagna, 27 a; Fieschi, 50 b; La Torr6, 39 d; Mallet, 50 a; negro in N. York, 45 f; d. of Suffolk, 26 c ; against Napoleon, 50 b; Saumur, 50 a
Constance, council of, 22 a;
peace of, 14 f Constans II., 5 c Constant, Benj., 67 d, e Constantine III., Gr. emp., 5 c
IV.	, 5c; V..7d; VI., 7 d VIl.,lld; VIII., Hd; IX. 11 d. 13 d; X., 13 d; XL 13 d, 23 i; XII., 13 d; II., of Scotland, 8 b; III., 10 b;
Constantinople, 3, d, e, 5, a, c, d, e, 7 d, 11 d, c, 19 1, 23 k, i,
41	f, 49 a, 58 b
Consulship, Roman, abolished,
. 3 e
Conlades, general, 47 c Conti, 34 b, 43 i; pope, Innocent XIII., 44 b
Continental system, 50 a, 52 c, 53 e, 66 b, c, d Contractus, Herraannus, 13 b Conluccio, And., 60 e Conventicles, act for suppressing,
38	c
Convention parliament, 38 b Convention for the settlement of Belgium, 48 b; of Cintra, 51 b; Dresden, 31 e; England with Austria, 50 b; Kloster-Zeven, 46 b, 47 c; of the North, 53 a; Nurenburg, 28 b; Pardo,
42	d; Philadelphia, 49 f; Scotch national, 51 a
Conybeare, 70 b Cook, Henry, painter, 69 d Cooke, Jas., 65 a Cooke’s voyages round the world, 46 c, 64 a
Coolies, revolt of, 37 c Coombe, Win., 65 a Cooper, sir Astley, 70 b; Ed., painter, 69 c; J. F., 65 a; Sam., 69 d
Coorg subdued by Hyder Ali, 49 c Copely, 51 a
Copenhagen, 15 c, 17 b, 28 e, 41 a, b, 44 d, 45 a, 53 a, e Copernicus, 60 e Copley, Singleton, 69 c Coppi, 70 c Copronymus, 7 d Corbet, 34 a Corbeuil, 24 b
Cordova, School of, 7 b, 8 c, 10 c, 11 b, 12 a, 16 b Corelli, Arch., 65 d .
Corenzio, Bellisarin, 68 b Corfu, 29 c, 43 f, 52 e. f Corinth taken, 43 f Corroenin, 67 d
Corn laws, 50 b, 51 a, 66 a, 67 b
Corneille, Peter, 65 c; Thos., 65c
Cornelius, Peter van, 69 a Cornwall, Barry, 65 a; Richard, earl of, 16 e, g
Cornwallis, marquis, 46 c, 49 c, f, 54 d
Corporation act, 38 c, 51 a Corpus Christi college, Oxford,
61	d; Corpus Evangelicorum, 40 e; Juris Hungarici, 58 c
Corradi, Domenico, 68 a Correggio, 59 e, 68 c Corrichie, battle of, 30 b Corsica, 12 e, 31 c, 42 c, 43 f, 46 b, 47 e, 50 b
Corsini, pope, Clement XII., 44 b Cortenuova, victory of, 16 f Cortereal, 26 a
Cortes assembled at Cadiz, 51 c; government of the, 51 b; last meeting of Portuguese, 39 a,
62	a ; in Spain, 51 c, 66 a; of Tomar, 31a
Cortez, 29 g
Cortona, Pietro da, 68 a, b Corunna, repulse at, 51 c Corvdes, disturbances caused by the, 47 c
Corvinus, Matt., 22 b, 58 d, 59 a Cosenas, Michael, 19 b Cosmo de Medici, 21 1, 27 c; II., of Tuscany, 35 d; III.,
39	e, 43 g Cossacks, 41 f Cossova, victory of, 23 k Cotton, sir C., 65 a ; H. B., 60 d Cotton trade, 59 c, 63 c Cotton’s, sir D., embassy, 37 b Council of Castile instituted, 56
c ; Constantinople, 3 d; of Forty, 56 c ; of the Indies, 27 f; Lateran, 7 a; of Paris, 4 c ; of Pisa, 27 e; of ten, 18 i, 56 a ; at Tours, 26 d ; of Trent, 27 a, e, 28 b, 31 e, 32 e; of Venice formed, 56 a ; general, 3 a, 5 a, 7 a, 9 a, 13 a, 15 a, 16 f *, 22; orders in, English, 50 a
Counties, England divided into, 56 c
Cour pleniere projected, 46 b Courier, P. L., 67 d Courland overrun by the Swedes, 44 e, f
Court of Session established, 26 b Cousin, Victor, 67 e, 69 e, 70 a Cousins, 69 c
Cousteu, Nic. and G., 64 e
Coutras, defeat at, 30 d
Covenant, Scotch, 34 a, 38 b
Cowley, Abr., 61 a
Cowper, Wm., 65 a
Coxe, 70 c
Coxis, Mich., 69 a
Coypel, Noel, 69 d; Ant., 69 d
Coysevox, Ant., 64 e
Crabbe, Geo., 65 a
Cracow, 17 f, 19 g, 41 c, 53 e, d
Cramer, Jno., 65 d
Cranmer, 26 c, 30 c
Crauford, 67 e
Crebillon, 65>c
Credenus, George, 13 b
Credenza, 10 e
Crefeldt, defeat of, 46 b, 47 c
Grequi, 40 e
Crescentius, k. of Italy, 10 e Crespi, Daniele. 68 d; Gius., 68 d Crespy, 26 d, 27 f, 58 b
iv., iu o; pope, «
Russia, 17 h; grand-duke, 53 e | Crete, 8 c, 9 d, e, lid
Cretensis, Demetrius, 22 b Crevant, victory of, 20 d Creutz, 65 b Crichton, sir Wm., 20 c Crimea, 45 a, 22 h Crim Tartary, 48 f, 49 a Crilici Sacra, 63 e Croatia, 13 c, 28 d, 40 g, 41 f Crocce, 61 b Croft, Dr. W., 65 d Croix, De la, 69 d Croix, St., sold by France, 45 f Croke, R., 59 e Croly, Geo., 65 a Cromwell, earl of Essex, 26 c; Oliver, 34 a, 38 b, 62 a, b; Richard, 38 b Crompton, Sam., 63 c Crotona, Venetian fleet destroyed at, 8 e
Crowe, Rev. Wm., 65 a Crownpoiut captured by the English, 49 f
Croyland abbey founded, 6 a Crunnus, k. of the Bulgarians, 9 d Crusades, 13 b, 17 i, 66 b ; first, 12 d, 13 a, b; second, 14 e, 15 e; third, 14 d, 15 e; fourth, 17 i; fifth, 17 i, 16 e, f; sixth, 17 i; seventh, 17 i; eighth and last, 17 i
Crusade declared against the Turks, 28 d
Crusca, academia della, 59 e Crusca defeated at Belgrade, 45 b Cruz, Santa, 55 b Cruzycano, Ram. de la, 65 b Crypto Calvinists, 31 e Ctesiphon destroyed, 7 e Cuba, 29 g, 58 b Cuddalore taken by the English,
49	c
Cudworth, R., 64 b Cufa, school of, 7 b Cuichelm, 4 a
Culen, king of Scotland, 10 b Culloden, 42 d Culm, 17 e, 22 f Cumberland yielded up to Henry II., 14 c
Cumberland, Rich., 64 b, 65 a Cunibert, 4 d
Curapoa acquired by the Dutch, 36 a
Curfew, 14 d Curran, J. P., 67 d Curtis, Sentom., 70 b; W„ 70 b Cusa, Nic-, 22 b, 24 a Cusco, siege of, 49 e Custine, 52 c
Custrin occupied by the French,
50	a, 53 c Cutbred, 6 a Cuton Moor, 14 c
Cuvier, George, 67 e, 70 b;
Fred., 70 b Cuyp, Albert, 69 b Cuzco, 29 g Cynegils, 4 a Cynewulf, 6 a Cynric, 2 a
~ irus, 5 d, 7 d, 9 d, lid, 15e,
1 I, 31 c, 33 c
Cyr, St., general, 50 a, 52 f Cyrillus, 9 a Czaslau, victory of, 44 c Czegedin, peace of, 21 k Czerni, George, 54 a
Daoshelim, 23 n Daghestan ceded to Russia, 45 a, 53 e, 54 b
DagobertL, 4 c; II., 4 c; III., 6 d
Dahlgren, C., 65, b Dalmasio, Lippo di, 68 d Dalmatia, 13 c, 19 h, 50 a Dalmatian fortresses ceded t< Venice, 41 f
Dalrymple, sir Hugh, 51 b Daltaban, vizier, 45 b Dalton, 70 b
Damascus, kingdom of, 15 e. captured by Khaled, 5 c ; John of, 7 b; 11., pope, 13 a Darner, Hon. A. S., 64 e Damiani, Peter, 13 b Damietta taken, 17 i Damnebrog, order of, revived, 41 a Danby, ministry of, 38 b Dance, jGeo., 64 e Dandolo, doge, 19 b Danes, 6 a, 8 a. e, 9 a, 10 a, 12 c Dane-gelt abolished, 12 c Daniel, 64 d; S., 60 d, 61 a Daniiovitsch, Ivan, 19 i Dacte, 18 i, 19 b/ 24 b Danton executed, 50 a Dantzic, 22 f, 28 g, 50 a, 53 c, e, 69 c
Danube, first passage of by Romanzoff, 48 f; attempt to unite it to the Rhine, 6 e Dardanelles, 60 b, 54 a Darien, 29 g DarneL 34 a Darnley, lord, 30 b Darn, count, 70 c Daubeny, Dr., 70 b Daubrawricsky, 32 c Daud, Khan Kiraui, 33 e Daun, general, 47 c, 48 b Davenant, sir Wm., 61 a, 65 a Davenport, painter, 69 d David I., ot Scotland, 14 c; II., 18 d; Jaques Louis, 69 d Davies, sir Jno., 61 a Davila, 60 d Davis, J., 60 d, 61 a Davoust, general, 60 a Davy, sir H., 67 b, e, 70 b Dawe, <j., 69 c Dawlut-Kherai, 33 b Deaf and Dumb institution at Paris, 64 a
Dearborn, general, 55 a Decandolle, 70 b Decatur, captain, 55 a Decazes, ministry of, 50 a Decretals, 56 c -De Foe, Dan., 6-5 a Degerando, 70 a Degsastan, battle at, 4 a Deguignes, 63 e Deira, kingdom of, 2 a, 4 a Dekker, Thos., 61 a Dekkin, the. 23 n. 26 a, 33 e,
41	h, 45 d. 54 d Delambre, 67 e, 70 h Delavigne, Charles, 65 c Delaware canal opened, 55 a Delhi, 19 m, 23 n, 33 e. 37 c,
45 c, 49 c, 54 d, 60 a Delille, 65 c Uelolme, 63 d
Delmenborst and Oldenburg exchanged for Holstein, 48 c Dembinski, gen., 67 a Demerara reduced by the English, 50 b; ceded to England, 52 a Demetrius of Russia, 33 b; czar, 36 k
Democrats, party of, 49 f Denham, sir Jn., 65 a Denina, 64 d Denman, 51 a
Denmark, 7 c, 9 c, 11 c, 13 c, 15 c, 17 b, 19 c, 22 c, 28 e, 32 e, 36 f, 41 a, 44 d, 48 c; joins the German Protestants, 36 c; absolute monarchy in, 62 a ; code of laws for, 62 c ; fleet taken by the English, 67 a; kings of, 73 Denner, 65 d
Dennis, Jno., 65 a; P., 18 a;
k. of Portugal, 16 a Dennewitz, defeat at, 52 c Denon, 67 e Denys, St., 30 d Denys, Chronique de, 19 b Deoaatus, 5 a
Deputies, chamber of in France, 66 a
Derbent acquired by Russia, 53 e Derby, earl of, 60 a Derham, Wm., 64 b Derwentwater, lord, executed,
42	d
Derwishes, great increase of, 29 c Desaix, 52 c Descartes, 63 e, 64 b; e Desfontaines, 70 b Desjardins, 64 e Desmarest, 70 b Desmonds, 30 b Desmoulins, Camille, 70 c Despotism and liberty, struggle of, 38 a
Dessalines, k. of Hayti, 55 c Dessoles, ministry of, 50 a D’Estaing, 49 f Destouches, 65 c Dettingen, 42 d, 43 c Detroit, defeat at, 55 a Deux-Ponls, house of, 41 b Devrient, 65 d
Deylimite dynasty founded, lie Deys, appointed by the troops, 37 a Despard, colonel, conspiracy of,
Dhar, rajah of, 23 n Diamond mines of Brazil discovered, 42 a, 63 b Diana of Poitiers. 26 d Dickens, Edw., 65 a Diderot, 46 b, 48 a, 64 b, 65 c Didier, k. of the Lombards, 6 e Diebitsch, 53 e, 54 a Diepenbecke, 69 a Diet of Augsburg, 32 c ; bloody, 28 c; Clauserobourg, 36 e; Odenburg, 40 g; Odensee, 28 e ; Presburg, 28 d, 43 e ; Poland, 48 e, 62 a; Ratisbon, 36 c, 40 c; nobles ol Silesia, 28 b ; Stockholm, 41 b ; Warsaw, 48 e; Worms, 27 e, 28 b, 58 c Dietrich, 69 a Digges, sir Dudley, 34 a Dijon, siege of, 26 d Dilavar, 23 n Dindorf, 67 e Disputes at Canton, 50 b Dissenter’s marriage bill, 51 a Dissideots, 44 f, 48 e Dittersdorf, 65 d Ditmarsh, 28 e, 32 e Did, 26 a, 39 a
Divara Samudra destroyed, 23 n Divilina, 36 i Diving bell, 60 a Dlugossus, Jo., 22 b Dneiper, defeat of, 49 a Dobree, 67 e Dobson, Will., 69 d Doctrinnaires, 62 a, 67 e Dodsley, 70 c
Dodsley’s Annual Register, 64 d Doggerbank, victory off, 46 c Dohm,70 c Dolci, Carlo, 68 a Dolgorucki family, rise of, 45 a Dollond’s, achr., telescope, 64 c Domenichino, 68 b, d Domenico, 68 a
Domingo, St., 33 f, 49 e, 50 b, 65 b
Dominicans, 16 k Domnus I., pope, 5 a; II., 11 a Donald Bane, of Scotland, 12 b ; of the Isles, 20 c ; III., k. of Scotland, 8 b; IV., 8 b Donatello, 22 b Donijetti, 65 d Donne, Jno., 61 a Donski Cossacks, 41 e Donskoi, 19 i Donoughmore, lord, 51 a Dooab acquired by England, 54 d
Dorado, El, 33 f Dora, Sheko, 37 c Dorat, 65 c
Dordrecht, synod of, 35 h, 36 a Doria, Andrew, 18 i, 27 a, 29 d, 31 c
Dorothea, pss. of Denmark, 28 g Dorothy of Brandenburgh, 22 c Dorpat taken by the Russians,45 a Dorset, earl of, 61 a, 65 a Dossi, Dosso, 68 d Doucy, English college at, 30 c Douglas, Gawin, 24 b, 61 a Douglas, William, earl of, 20 c Douglasses, 26 b Dow, Gerard, 69 b Dowlatabad, population of Delhi removed to, 23 n Dowlut, Khan Lodi, 29 f Dragatschan, 54 a Dragonelti, 65 d Dragoons, 59 a, 63 a Dragut, 29 d, 33 c Drake, sir Francis, 30 c, 31 a, 33 f, 59 e, 60 a, d
Drama, English, 61 a, 65 d; French, 65 c; German, 61 c, 65 c ; rise of modern, 24 b Drayton, Mich., 61 a Drebel, 60 a
Dresden, 43 c, e, i, 44 c, 47 c, 50 a Dresden, Augusteums, 64 e Dronfair, 69 d Drontheiro, 11 c, 41 a, b Druids, 2 c
Drummond, Wm., 61 a Drumnechtan, battle of, 6 b Druses, 33 c Dryburgh founded, 14 c Dryden, Jno., 65 a Dublin proclaimed in a state of rebellion, 50 b Dubois, ministry of, 42 c Dubravius, 32 c Ducas, 13 d
Ducas, John, 17 1, 22 b Duckworth forces the Dardanelles, 50 b
Dudley and Ward, lord, 51 a Duff, k. of Scotland, 10 b Dugdale, Wm.,64 d Dughet, Casper, 69 e Duhalde, 64 d
Dukedoms established, 8 e; made hereditary, 8 e Dulaure, 70 c Dumas, 65 c Dumeril, 70 b Dumourier, 52 a, c Dunbar, Wm., 24 b,38 b,61 a Duncan, admiral, 50 b ; entom., 70 b; of Scotland, 12 b Duncombe, 67 d Dundas, Mr., 51 a Dunham, S. A., 70 c Dunkirk, 38 b, 40 b, 50 b Dunning, 46 d Duns, 57 d
Dunsinane, battle of, 12 b Dunstable, J., 60 f Dunstan, St., 10 a, 11 a, b Dupin, 67 d Dupleix, 46 b, 49 c Durandus, 19 b Durante, 63 e, 65 d Durazzo, 12 e, 13 d Durer, All., 59 a, e, 69 a Durfey, Thos., 65 a Durham, 12 b, 14 c; earl of, 51 a, 55 c ; Simon of, 15 b Dutch companies, 59 c; literature, 59 e
Dutch and Belgian provinces separated, 36 a Dyce, Rev. Alex., 65 a Dyer, Jno., 65 a Dyke, Offas^ 6 a
Eadbai.d, 4 a Eadbert, 6 a, 8 a Eadmote, meeting at, 10 a Eanfrith, 4 a Eanred, 8 a Eardwulf, 8 a
Earldoms hereditary, 8 e, 56 d Earthquakes in Calabria and Messina, 47 f; Lisbon, 26 a; Pekin, 45 e; Sicily, 39 g East-Anglia, kingdom of, 2 a, 4 a Eben Esra, 15 b Eberhard, 64 b Ebrington, lord, 51 a Ebroin, 4 c Eccelino da Romano, 16 f * Ecgfrid, 4 a Echmuhl, 52 c Eckhof, 65 c Eckius, 27 e
Eckpont, G. van der, 69 b Eclectus, 64 b, 70 a Ecole militaire founded, 46 b Edelink, 69 d Eden, Wm., 66 c Edessa captured, 15 e; principality of founded, 13 b Edgehill, 34 a
Edgar, k. of England, 10 a; k.
of Scotland, 12 b, 14 c Edgeworth, Maria, 65 a Edinburgh, 6 b, 18 d, 20 c, 26 c; review, 67 d
Edmund I., k. of Britain, 10 a ;
Ironside, 12 c Edred, k. of England, 10 a Ediisites at Fez, 9 e, 11 e Edridge, Henry, 69 c Edward the Confessor, 12 c,56c; Elder, king of England, 10 a; Martyr, k. of England, 10 a; I., k. of England, 16 e, 18 e, 57 a; II., 18 e; III., 18 e; IV., 20 d; V., 20 d ; VI., 26 c, 30 c, 58 d; prince of Wales, 20 d; 26 c; I., k. of Portugal, 20 a
Edwards, Bryan., 64d, 70 c; R., 61 a; Dr., 70 b
Edwin, k. of England, 10 a, 6 b;
k. of Northumbria,' 4 a Edwin’s-burgh founded, 6 b Ega, 4 c
Egbert, 6 a, 8 a, 56 a; arclibp.
of York, 7 b Egica, 4 b Eginetus, Paul, 5 b Eginhard, 9 b Egmont, 32 a
Egypt, 13 e, 29 d, 49 a; subdued by the Arabs, 5 d ;. invaded by the Persians, 5 e; subdued by the Fatimite9, lie; English expedition to, 50 b; French expedition to, 66 b Egyptian antiquities, 67 e; Moni-teur, 67 e Eichhorn, 70 c
Eichstadt ceded to Bavaria, 52 c Elba, 50 a Elbing, 17 e, 22 f Eldon, lord, 67 d, 51 a Eleanor of Provence, 16 e Electro-magnetism discovered, 70 b
Electricity discovered, 60 c Elenore of Portugal, 21 h Eleutherius, 4 d
Eleuths completely subdued, 49 d Eleuth Tartars, revolts of, 45 e Elfrida, q. of Edgar, 10 a Elgin marbles, 64 e Elgiva, queen of Edwin, 10 a El Hamed, defeat at, 54 a Eliza Bacciochi, 72 Elizabeth, q. of England, 30 c ; Farnese, 42 b; of France, 35 a; of Parma, 42 b; emp. of Russia, 45 a, 48 f; q. of Russia, 63; p. of W’ales, 34 a Ella, 2 a
Elliot, sir John, 34 a; general, 47 g
Elliotson, Dr., 70 b Ellis ton, 65 a Elraakin, 17 a
Elmioa acquired by the Dutch,
36 a
Elmsley, 67 e Elphinstone, adm., 50 b Elsheimer, Adam, 69 a Ellen seized by France, 53 c Elvey, of Oxford, 65 d; of Windsor, 65 d
Ely cathedral built, 57 d Elyot, sirT., 59 d, e Elzevirs, 59 e Embargo Act passed, 55 a Emeric, king of Hungary, 17 g ;
king of Sweden, 15 c Emir al Omrah, 13 f Emirs become independent, 19 n Emigrants from France, 46 b, c Emmanuel Philibert, 31 c t^mperors and popes, struggle of, 56 b
Empirical school, French, 64 b Empson, 26 c
Enamel, painting on, invented, 69 d
Encyclopedists, the, 46 b, 48 a, 63 d, 64 b Encomiendas, 29 g Enfantin, 52 g Engelbert.
Engelbrechtsen; Cornelius, 69 b Engelburger, 60 e Enghien, D’ son of Cond6, 41 d ; duke, 50 a
England,10a, 12c,14d,16e,18e, 20d,26c,30c,46c,50b; firstk. of, 56 a; divided into baronies, 56 a ; coalition against, 62 b; loses her N. Am. colonies,63 c ; divided into counties, hundreds, and tithings, 56 c; Danish kings of, 12 c; interference of, in the politics of Europe, 62b ; first political connection of, with France, 10 a; histories of, 60 d, 64 d ; power in India established, 62 b; invaded by the Danes, 10 a, 12 c, Welch, 12 c, Irish, 12 c, Normans, 12 c, Scotch, 16 d, 20 d; Ireland united to, 50 b, 66 a; English monarchy, true founder of, 8 a; first consolidated, 30 a; national income, 66" d; navy, immense power of, 67 a; a republic, 58 a; Scotland united to, 30 c, 42 d, 62 a; gains sure footing in the West Indies, 63 c
Engravers, 69 e Enke, 70 b Enkoping, 19 d Ensenada, 47 g Ensisheim, 40 e Entomologists, 70 b Eocha, 8 b Eormenric, 2 a Ep6e, abbe de 1’, 64 a Episcopacy established, 38 c; abolished iu Norway, 28 e; in Scotland, 34 a Erasmus, 59 e, 61 d Ercilla, Alonso de, 61 b Erfurdt, 50 a, 52 c, 53 e Eric I., of Denmark, 13 c, 15 c; II., 15 c; 111., 15c; IV., 17b; V., 17 b; VI., 17 b; VII., 19 c; Edmundson, 9 c, 56 a; king of Norway, 11 c; II., 17 c; VII., of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 22 d; X., 17 d; XL, 17 d; XII., 19 e; XIV., 32 f, 58 a; XV., 73 Erie canal opened, 55 a Erigena, Scotus, 9 a, b, 24 a Erivao, 33 d, 37 a, 45 b, c, 53 e, 54 b
78
GENERAL INDEX.
Ermenigild, 2 b Ernest, king of Hanover, 52 c Erakine, lord, 51 a, 67 d Erwig, 4 b
Erzroum, peace of,‘ 54 b; taken, 54 a
Eschenmayer, 70 a Escbilbach, Wolfram v., 24 b Escnrial, the, 59 e, 60 e Esper, 70 b Esra, Eben, 15 b Essayists, British, 63 e Essek.28d.29c Essen acquired by France, 53 c Essequibo, 50 b, 52 a Essex, kingdom of, 2 a, 4 a; earl of, 30 c, 34 a Estaluto real, 51 c Este, house of, 31 c, 35 f Esterhasi, count, 40 g Esthonia ceded to Russia, 46 a ])'Estr6es, 39 c Estremos, 39 a, b Eswyn, 2 a
Etats-generaux, meeting of, 46 b Et casters oath, 34 a Ethandune, battle of, 8 a Ethel bald, 6 a, 8 a Ethelbert, 2 a, 6 a, 8 a Ethelfrith, 2 a, 4 a Ethelheard, 6 a
Ethelred, 4 a, 6 a, 8 a, 10 a, 12 c Ethelney, isle of, refuge of Alfred in, 8 a
Ethelwulf, 8 a Ethnography, 70 c Eton school, 59 e, 61 d Etruria in England, 63 c Etty, 69 c
Eucharist, disputes on, 28 a Eudes, 6 c, d; monk of Cluni, lib; king of France, 72 Eudocia, 13 d
Eocene, prince, 42 c, 43 e, 52 e,
Eugenius I., pope, 5 a; II., 9 a;
III.,	15 a; IV., 22 a Euler, Leon., 64 c Euric, 2 b Europe, heroic age of, 13 b; balance of power formed in, 68 b; countnes of, taxed by the papacy, 19 a Enstachi, Bart, GO c Eustathius, 15 b St. Eustatius acquired by the Dutch, 36 a; taken by the English, 47 a Eutychius, 6 e Evans, sir Lacy, 51 c
Evesham, battle at, 16 e Evora, parliament of, 20 a Evreui-Navarre, house of, 72 Exarchate bestowed on the pope,
6	d
Exarchs, war of, with the Lorn* bards,3c; Greek, at Ravenna, 3 c, 6 e
Exchange, letters of, invented,
7	b; Royal, 69 c Exchequer court, 56 c Excise, 41 c, 46 d, 58 d, 62 d Exclusion, Act of, 38 b, 40 b Exilles, defeat at the pass of, 43 i Exmouth, lord, 50 b
Ex officio informations, 51 a Ewald, John, 65 b, 67 e Eyck, John van, 24 c, 69 a; Hubert van, 24 c, 69 a Eylau, 50 a
Fabrigius, 70 b Fabyan’s Chronicle, 60 d Facchinetti. 31 e Factory Bill, 67 c Faes, Peter van der, 69 d
b
64c
Fairfax, 34 a, 61 a Fairs at Leipsic, 59 c Fairthorne, Will., 69 c Feith, 65 b, d Fakhr ud din, 23 n -Falaise, treaty of, 14 c Falconry introduced, 3 c Falconet, 64 e Falcxy, peace of, 45 b Faliero, Marino, 18 i Falkirk, battle of, 16 e Falkland islands, 33 f, 47 g Fallopio, Gab., 60 c Family Statute, 50 a; Compact, 46b
Famine in Tuscany, 47 e Fanatic intolerance of the presby-terians, 34 a Faraday, Dr., 70 b Fardella, Mich. An?., 64 b Farinelli, 47 g, 65 a Farmers-general, 58 d Farnese, 35 f; Ottavio, 31 c; Pietro, 27 c
Farnesian collection of antiquities, 64 e
Farquhar, Th., 65 a Faiien, 65 a
Fatima and Fatimites, 11 e Faust, 24 d Faustina, 65 d Favila, 6 c Fayette, de la, 66 c Fayrfax, Dr. Rob., 60 f Federal constitution of America, 49 f
Federalists, party of, 49 f Federative system, Napoleon’s,
50a
Fehrbellin, victory of, 41 b, 62 b, 63a
Felix II. or III. andJV., 3 d Fell, John, 64 d Fenella, 10 b Fenelon, 40 a, 65 e
Fagg, 38 a Fagiulo, 65 Fahrenheit.
Fenton, Elij., 65 a Fenwick, sir John, 38 b Feodor Ivanovich, emp. of Russia, 33 b; II., 36 k, 41 e Ferdinand, archduke, 28 b ; of Aragon, 27 f, 58 a, 59 a ; duke of Brunswick, 47 c; archduke of Gratz, 35 a ; of Castile, 20 b; IV., 16 b; I. crop, of Germ., 28 b, 32 c, 73 ; II., 36 c, 73 ; IV., 36 d, 40 f, 73; king of Hungary, 32 d; de Medici, 35 d ; 1. of Naples, 58a; II., 52 f; III., IV., 52 f; duke of Parma, 47 e; king of Portugal, 18 a ; I. of Savoy, 31 c; king of Sicily, 21 m; II. 21 m; IV., 47 f; IV. of Spain, 18 c; and Isabella, 20 b, 58 a; sepulchre of, 60 e; VI., 47 g;
VII., 51 c, 72; of Tuscany, 52 e; II., 35 d ; III., 47 e Ferdusi, 13 e Ferguson, Ad., 64 d Fernando I., of Castile, 12 a; II., of l.eon, 14 b; Royal Acad, of, 69c
Ferrand, 70 c
Ferrara, university, 19 b; duchy of, 31 c
Ferrari, Gaud., 68 d Ferreira, Ant., 61 b Ferraras, 64 d Ferrol, battle of, 50 b Fersen,63 e Fesca, 65 d
Feudal labour in France, 63 b; privileges abolished in Sicily, 52 f; in Spain and Naples, 67 b; state, first, 56 a; system, rise of, 2 c, 8 e; gains strength, 12 d; in England, 56 a; overthrow of, in France, 62 a ; tenures, civil broils respecting, 12 e; abolished, 62 d Fez, school of, 7 b Fichte, 67 d, e Ficinius, Marsilius, 24 a Fieft abolished in Prussia, 44 c;
hereditary, 8 e, 66 a Field, 65 d
Field of Gold, 26 d; of Lies, 8 e;
of March, 56 a Fielding, H., 65 a Fieschi, 27 a; infernal machine, 50a
Fieaole, Fra., 24 c Fife, earl of, 18 d Fifth-monarchy men, 38 b Fighting on horseback adopted,
Figures, Arabic, 11 b Filangieri, 47 f,62e,63d Filicaja, 61 b Filmer, Rob., 63 d Finale, 43 c, f
Finance, 57 a, 58 d, 62 d, 66 d Finance, French, ruined, 42 c;
reformed, 58 d Finden, 69 c Finland, 45 a, 53 e Fioravanti, 65 d Fire of London, 38 b Firoz, 3 f
Firoz Tooghlek, 23 n Fisher, Bp., 26 c Fischart, Job., 61 c Fitche, J. G., 70 a Fitton, 70 b
Fitz-Geralds’ rebellion, 26 c Fitzherbert, N., 60 d Fitz-Robert, William, 14 d Flagellants, 16 i Flame!, Nicholas, 19 b Flanders, 15 c, 21 f, 27 g, 28 e ; invaded by French, 16 f; ceded to Spain, 27 f; linen and woollen manufacture in, 11b; count of, 10 d Flatman, Thos., 69 d .
Flassan, 70 c Flaxman, John, 64 e Flemming, Paul, 61 c Fletcher, Giles, 61 a; John,61 a; Phineas, 61 a
Fleurus, victory at, 50 a, 52 a Fleury, card., ministry of, 42 c ; abW, 64 d
“ Flibustiers,” commence depredations, 41 k Flink, G., 69 b Flodden, 26 b Flor, Roger de, 19 k Florence, 27 c; peace of, 50 a, 52 c ; tenure of the duke of,
31	c, 58 a
Florence of Worcester, 15 b Florian, 65 c
Florida discovered, 29?; restored to Spain, 46 c, 49 f; ceded to England, 46 c ; ceded to U. S., 55 a
Florida-Blanca, ministry of, 47 ?
Florin, Fr., 69 a
Flower, W., 51 a
Fludd, Rob., 64 b
Flushing in custody of the English,
32	a, 36 a
Fokein, revolts in, 54 e ■
Folengo, 61 b Follutone, lord, 51 a Folkungur, house of, 17 d Fontainbleau, 28 e, 41 a, 60 e;
decree of, 50 a, 67 c Fontaine, 63 e, 65 c Fontana, Dorn., 60 e Fontarabia besieged by the French, 34 b, 35 b
Fontenai, battle of, 8 e Footenelle, 65 c Fontenoy, 42 d, 43 a Foote, Sam., 65 a Ford, John, 61 a Forge, de la, 64 b Fooli, Ansovino da, 68 d
Formo6u9, pope, 9 a Formula of Concord, 31 e, 32 c, 40 a
Fornovo, victory of, 21 1 Fort, le, 41 e Fortiguerra, Nic., 65 b Foecari, Ant., 21 1 Foscarini, Ant., 65 b Fosse, Ant de la, 65 c, 69 e Fouche, 50 a Foucher, Sim., 64 b Fouque, 65 c Fourcroy, 67 e, 70 b Fox, Ch. Jas., 46 d, 51 a, 66 a, 67 d, e ; John, 60 d Foy, gen., 67 d
France, 6 c, d, 8 e, 9 c, 10 d, 12 d, 14 e, 16 f, 18 f, 20 e, 26 c, d, 34 b, 46 b, 50 a ; aborigines of, 2 c; alliance of, with America, 46 b; coalitions against, 50 a, 51 b, 52 c, 62 b; kings of, 72; first political connection of, with England, 10 a; municipalities in, 46 b, 62 a, 63 c; parliaments abolished in, 46 b; republic of, 46 b,
50	a, 52 g, 62 a, 66 b; revolutions, 50 a, 53 e, 62 a, d, 63 b, c, 66 a, b, 67 a; royalty abolished io,46 b
France, isle of, ceded to England, 50a
Franceschini, Marcantonio, 68 d Francia, Francesco, 68 d Frauche Comte, 27 g, 39 c Francia, 56 b
Francis I., of France, 26 d, 58
a,	d. 59e, 72; II., 30 d, 60 a,
72	; I., of Germany, 43 c, 47
c,	73; II.,47 c,52c; Hyacinth,
d.	of Savoy, 35 e; d. of Lor-mine, 43 c, f; IV., in Modena, 62 e; I., of Naples and Sicily, 62 f; Sforza, 211; Maria, 31 c
Franciscans, 16 k Franco, mathematician, 13 b Franconia, house of, 12 e, 73 Frank-pledges, 56 c Frank, Sebastian, 69 a Frankfort, assembly at, 31 e; diet at, 18 g, 52 c ; synod at, 6 d; union, 44 c Franklin, Beni., 46 b, 49 f, 63 d, 64 c
Franks, 2 a, c, 3 c, 4 c, 6 d, 8 e, 10 e, 56 b
Fraser murdered, 54 d Fraternisation, decree of, 50 a Fredegaire, 7 b Fredegonda, 2c.
Frederic, emp. of Austria, 18 g;
1.,	of Denmark, 28 e, 73; 11., 32 e, 73 ; 111., 36 f, 41 a, 73; IV., 41 a, 44 c, 73; V., 44 d, 48 c, 73; VI., 53 a, 73; I., emp. of Germany, 14 f, 24 b, 73; II., 16 g, 56 a, 57 b, 73;
111.,	21 h; Augustus I., k. of Poland# 41 d, 44 f; II., 44 f, 48 e ; William I., k. of Prussia, 36 h, 44 c; II., 44 c, 48 b, 53 c, 63 a, d, 73; III.,41 c,53c,
73	; the Wise, of Saxony, 28
b,	?; II., of Sicily, 16 h; 111., 181,21 m ; k. of Sweden, 44 e, 48 d; p. of Wales, 46 c
Frederickshall besieged by Charles XII., 44 e
Fredericksham, peace of, 63 b, e Free cities, progress of, 10 e;
companies, rise of, 57 b . Freethinkers in England, 44 b Freemasons’ lodges, origin of, in England, 57 d
Fresco painting revives in Italy, 13b
Freiburg, 39 c, 47 c Freminet, 69 e French-town, defeat at, 55 a Frey re, 55 b Frey tag, 67 e
Fribourg, canton, 52 b ; restored to the Emp., 40 e; joins the Swiss confederacy, 21 g Fridling, 42 c Friedewalde, treaty of, 30 d Friedland, 50 a, 53 e Friends of the People, society of,
51	a
Fries, 70 a
Friesengen, Otho, bishop of, 15 b Friesland, 27 g
Frisons shake ofF the Frankish yoke, 4 c Friuli, duke of, 8 e Froberger, 65 d Frobisher, adm., 30 c Froissart, 19 b, 22 b, 60 d Fronde, factions of the, 34 b, 39
c,	58 a
Frondeurs, 34 b
Fruela I., of Leon, 6 c, 10 c: II., 10 c
Frugoni, 65 b
Frundsberg, Geo. von, 59 a ■ Fueger, 69 a
Fugger and Welser families, 59 c Fulbert of Chartres, 13 b Fuller, Isaac, painter, 69 d; T., 60d,64d Fulton, 65 a, 67 c Fulwell, 61 a Funding system, 46 d Furst, 18 h
Furetenberg, cardinal, 40 e Fuseli family, 69 a; Henry, 69 c Fussen, 43 c Futteb Ali Shah, 54 b, c Futtehpoor Sicri founded, 33 e Fylk Kongr, 7 c
Gabellb, 57 a
Gabriel Bathori, p. of Transyl vania, 36 e
Gabrieli, the, 60 f, 64 e Gabrielle, the fair, 60 a Gadesbuch, victory of, 44 e Gaddi, Taddeo, 24 c, 68 a Gafurio, Franchino, 24 c Gagern,70 c Gaisford, Dr., 67 e Gainsborough, Thos., 69 c Gakare, 23 n
Galata ceded to Genoa, 17 1 Gale, Th., 64 b, d Gale Jones, 51 a Galeazzo, John, 21 h, 1 Galen, van, bishop of Munster, 40 b, e
Galicia, West, ceded to Saxopy, 52 c
Galicia acquired by Austria,47 c, 48 e; conquered by Alfonso, 6 c
Galilei, Vine., 60 f Galileo de Galilei, 59 e, 60 c Gall, 70 b Gal land, 63 e Gallipoli conquered, 19 1 Gallitzin, 48 f, 49 a Galt, Jno., 65 a Galuppi, 65 d Galvani, Al., 64 c, 70 b Galvanism discovered, 70 b Galves, 31 d, 33 c Gama, Vasco de, 20 a, 22 b, 23 n, 59 c
Gamarra, 55 b Game Act, 46 d
Gangonelli, pope Clement XIV.,
48	a
Gans, 67 e Gansford, 22 b Garpao, 65 b
Garcia, of Spain, 10 c; III., of Navarre, 12 a; IV., 14 b; Ximenes, 8 d
Garda, Lago di, victory at, 52 e Gardie, de la, 36 g, i Gardiner, 26 c Gamier, Rob., 61 c Garofalo, Benvenuto, 68 d Garre, 64 b Garrick, Dav., 65 a Garter, order of, instituted, 18 e Gascoigne, G., 61 a Gascony invaded by the Spaniards, 34 b, 35 b
Gassendi, Pet., 64 b, c Gaston de Foil, 26 d Gaston, duke of Orleans, 72 Gates, genera], 46 c, 49 f Gatti, Bernardino, 68 c Gaudet, 67 d
Xiauls subdued by the Romans, 2 c
Gaus, 70 b Gaveston, P., 18 e Gay, John, 65 a Gaza, Theod., 22 b, 24 a Gazette de France, 34 b, 59 e Geber, astronomer, 11 b Geeraerds, 69 a Geijer, 70 c
Geisa, of Hungary, 11c; III., of Sweden, 15 c
Gelasius I., pope, 3 d; II.,
15	a
Gelderland, 27 g
Gellert, Gh. F., 65 c
Geneva, 6 e, 28 a, 35 e, 43 b, 47
b,	52 b
Genoa, 17 1,21 1, 27 a, 35 c, 39
c,	d, 43 f, 47 e ; sacked by the Franks, 3 c; acquired by France, 50 a; French expelled from, 27 a; bequeathed to the holy see, 13 a; aristocratic republic in, 27 a
Genseric, 2 b Gentleman's Mag., 63 e Gentz, 67 d Geology, 70 b
George of Denmark, 42 d; I., of England,42 d,62a; II.,42 d;
111.,	46 c, 50 b; IV., 50 b George, St, chevalier de, 46 c George Frederic, 32 g George Pisides, 5 b Georges, conspiracy of, 50 a Georgia, 17 f, 29 e, 33 d, 45 c, f,
49	b ; ceded to Persia, 37 a ; incorporated with Russia, 63 e, 54 b, 66 b
Georgium Sidus discovered, 70 b Gepids join the Ostrogoths, 3 e;
destroyed, 3 b Geraint, 6 a Gerard, Fr., 69 d -Gerhard, count, 19 c Gerhardt, Paul, 61 c Germain, 48 c Germaine de Foix, 27 d, f Germain en Laye, St., peace of, 30 d
Germany, 4 c, 10 e, 12 e, 14 f,
16	g, 18 g, 21 b, 28 b, 32 c, 36 c, 43 c, 47 c, 52 c, 67 c
German emperors, 73 ; obtain the power of nominating to the holy see, 13 a; tribes, sixth great migration of, 3 e; empire, dissolution of, 52 c, 66 a; league, 52 c, 66 a, b; princes, confederation of, 47 c, 48 b Germans divided, 8 g, 10 e,28 b,
56	a
German des Pres, St, chorch of,
57	d
Gero, 10 e Gerontius, 2 a
Getson,John Charlier de, 19 b, 22 b, 24 a Gerstenberg, 65 c Gertruydenburg, conference at, 42 c
I Gesalic, 2 b I Gesenius, 52 g, 67 e Gesler, 18 h
Gesner, Conrad, 60 c Gesualdo, 60 f Ghazan Kban, 17 m, 19 n Ghazi-Hassan, pasha, 49 a Ghazi-o-deen, 49 c Gbeias ad din Balban, 23 n Ghent, peace of, 27 g, 32 a, 50 b, 55 a
Gherai family, 23 i Gbetes or Jutes, 2 a Ghibelines, 14 f, 16 f, 18 i, 56 a Ghebers, 5 e Ghiberti, 22 b
Ghilan ceded to Russia, 45 a Ghilji Afghans, revolt of, 45 c Ghirlandajo, Domenico, 24 c; Rodolfo, 68 a
Ghizni, principality of, 11 e, 23 n Ghiznivides, 13 f Gboorka war, 54 d Ghuz, 15 f Giannone, 64 d Gibbon, Ed., 64 d Gibbons, Grinl., 64 e; Orl., 60 f Gibbs, sir Vicary, 51 a Gibraltar, 18 c, 20 b, 42 b, 47 g, 63 a
Gibson answers the Freethinkers,
44	b
Gibson, J., 64 e Gifford, Wm., 65 a Gigli, 65 b Gilbert, Wm., 60 c Gillies, Jo., 64 d, 70 c Gillon, arabass. to Persia, 41 g Gioja, FI., 19 b Giordano, Luca, 69 b Giorgone, 68 c Giottino, 24 c, 68 a Giotto, 24 c, 57 d. 68 a Giovane Italia, 52 e Gipsies, first appearance of, 21 k Girondists, 50 a Giurgevo, capture of, 53 e, 54 a Gladstone, 67 d Glaber-Rad, 13 b Gladsmuir, 42 d Glamorgan, treaty with, 34 a Glanville, Rainulph de, 15 b Glaris, canton of, 52 b Glasgow, 63 c
Glastonbury abbey rebuilt, 6 a Glatz ceded to Prussia, 44 c Glauber, 64 c Gleirn, 65 c
Glendower, Owen, 20 d Glenlivat, battle of, 30 b Glinski, 29 a
Glogau occupied by the French, 50 a, 53 c; Henry, duke of,
Glosses, period of, 17 a Gloucester, Robert of, 17 a, 24 b;
siege of, 34 a Glover, Rich., 65 a Gluck, 63 e, 65 d Gluckstadt, supreme court at, 48 c
Glycas, Mich., 22 b Gneisenau, 53 c
Goa, 26 a, 31 a, 39 a, 58 b, 59 c
Gobelin tapestry, 63 c
Goddard, 49 c
Godendacb, F., 24 c
Goderich, lord, 51a
Godeschalcus, 9 a
Godfrey, sir Edmondsbuiy, 38 b;
of Bouillon, 13 b, 15 e Godomar, 3 a
Godoy, don Manuel, 47 g, 51 c Godwin, earl, 12 c; Wm., 67 d Goes, Ant. van der, 65 b ; Hugo van der, 24 c, 69 a Goethe, 63 e Gohier, 70 c Golconda, 29 f, 41 h Gold mines in North America, 67 b; of Brazil discovered, 41k; Mexico and Peru, 59 b; Sonora and Analoa, 49 e ; in Spain, 57 c
Golden bull promulgated, 18 g; book, 56 a; norde, 17 h; league, 32 b
Goldoni, Carlo, 65 b Goletta taken, 33 c Gomar, dissensions of, 36 a Gomarists, 35 h Gombette law published, 3 a Gombroon, English factory at, 34 a, 37 b, 49 b Gomez, 60 d Gondebald, 2 c, 3 a Gondebert, 4 d Gondemar, 4 b Gonderic, 3 a Gondicar, 3 a Gondouin, 64 e Gongora, Luis de, 61 b Gontran, 2 c Gonzaga, 35 d, f Gonzalo de Cordova, 20 b, 59 a Goolistan, peace of, 53 e, 54 b Goolnabad, battle at, 45 c Goorgeen, revolt of, 45 c Gooroo Govind ravages India,
45	d
Gore, Mrs., 65 a Goree, 46 b, c Goring, 34 a
Gonn the Aged, of Denmark, 9 c. He,56a Gorres, 67 d, 70 a Gortz, baron de, ministry of, 44e
Gosford, earl, 55 c Gosius, 16 b Gottenburg, 36 g, 48 c Gotthard, St., 40 g Gothard Kettler, 33 a Gothland conquered, 19 f Goths, Alemanni, and Saxons,
I league of, 56 b Goths, army of, cut to pieces by the Franks, 3 c
Gothic monarchy, of Spain, 2 b 6 c; overthrown, 3 c	’
Gottingen, troubles in, 52 c Gottsched, 65 c Goujon, J., 60 e Goulburn, 51 a, 67 d Gould, 70 b Gourgauld, 70 c Government, 56 a, 58 a, 62 a
66	a
Gower, John, 24 b Gowrie, earl of, beheaded, 30 b Goyen, van, 69 b Gozzi, Carlo, 65 b Gozzoli, Benozzo, 24 c, 68 a Grabbe, 65 c Grafton's Chronicle, 60 d Grafton and Townsbend ministry, 46 d
Graham, sir J., 51 a ; sir R 20 c
Grainger, Jas., 64 d Grammar school, 61 d Gran, victory of, 32 d, 33 c Granacci, Francesco, 68 a Granada, kingdom of, 16 c, 20 b 31b, 39c, 58 b Granson, battle of, 20 e, 21 f, g Grant, Mr., 51 a Granvelle, cardinal, 32 a Grasse, de, admiral, 46 b Gratian, 15 b Grattan, H., 67 d Graun, C. H.,65d Gravelines, 30 d, 31 b Gravenhorst, 70 b Gravesand, 64 c Gravnella, 31 h Gray, Thos., 65 a Grenville, poet, 65 a Grecourt, 65 c
Greece, treaty in favour of, 50 a ; revolutionary war, 54 a, 66 a, b kingdom of founded, 66 a, b Greek empire, 3 e, 7 d, 9d, 11 d, 13d, I5d, 17 k, 19 k.23i; invaded by the Bulgarians, 3 c; invaded by the Ostrogoths, 3 e; war of with Partbia, 3 f; in-vaded by the Persians, 5 e; treaty of with the Turks, 3 e Greek fire saves Constantinople, 5 b, c, 7 d
Greek and Roman churches, schism of between, 5 a Greek literature, 19 b, 22 b; professorship at Oxford, 59 e Green, Sam., 37 e Greene, Dr. M., 65 d; Rob., 61a
Greenhill, John, 69 d Greenland, 11 b, c, 17 e, 19 e, 26 a, 36 f, 44 d
Greenwich observatory, 64 c; hospital, 64 e
Gregorian era, 31 e, 46 c, 59 e Gregorius Corinth, 15 b Gregory, exarch, 4 d Gregory I., the Great, 2 a, 3 d ;
II.,	7 a, 11 b, e; III., 7 a; IV.,9a; V., 11a; VI.,VII.,13 a; VIII., 15a; IX.,X.,16i; XI., 19 a; XII., 22 a ; XIII.. 31 e; XIV., 31 e; XV., 36 h Grenada captured by the French, 46 b
Grenville, earl, 42 e, 46 d, 51 a,
67	d
Gresham, Sir Thos., 59 c Gresset, 65 c Gretry, A. E., 65 d Greuze, 69 d Greville, botanist, 70 b Grey, earl, 51 a, 66 b, n, 67 d; lady Jane, 30 c; sir Thos., 20 d
Gribelin, Simon, 69 c Griefeld, earl of, 41 a Grig, 8 b Grijalva, 29 g
Grimaldi, minister, 47 g, 42 b ; mathematician, 64 c; Giov.,
68	d
Grimoald, 4 c, d Gripsolm, 28 f Grisons, canton, 52 b Grocyn, 59 e
Grodno, diet of, 33 a, 44 f Groningen, 27 g Gronovius, 59 e Groebeeren, defeat at, 52 c Gros, le, 64 e Groshead, Robert, 17 a Gross, 69 d
Groas-Jagersdorff, battle of, 48 b, f Groetete, Robert, 17 a Grotius, H., 59 d, e Grumbach, conspiracy of, 32 c Giyphius, Andr., 61 c Guadaloupe, 37 e, 39 c, 50 b Guarini, Giam., 69 e, 61 b Guarneri, musician, 60 f Guarnieri, duke, 18 i, 57 b Guastalla ceded to Don Philip, 42 d, 43 e Guatemala, 55 b Guatimozin, 29 g Guelf, 16 f, 18 i, 56 a Guercino, 68 d Guericke, Otto von, 64 c Guerillas, war of, 51 c, 67 & Guerin, 69 d Guernieri, F., 64 e Guernsey, retained by the English, 20 e Guerrero, 65 b Gueux, association of, 32 a Guglielmi, Pet., 65 d Guiana restored to France, 50 a Guiccardini, 59 e, 60 d Guido, k. of Italy, 8 e Guidone, 68 b
Guiennerestored to England, 18 e;
lost to France, 14 d Guignes, de, 64 d
GENERAL INDEX.
Guinea discovered, 20 a
Guinegate, 26 c
Guiscard, Robert, 12 e
Guise, duke of, 30 d, 35 g, 39 g
Guizot, Fras., 67 d, e, 70 c
Guldenburg, ministry of, 48 c
Gundered, 10 c
Gunderic, 2 b
Gunilda, 32 f
Gundling, 63 d
Gunpowder, 19 b, 20 d, 22 b, 67 b, 58 a
Gunpowder plot, 34 a Gunther, 18 g
Gustavus Vasa, 28 f, 58 a, 73; Adolphus, 36 c, g, 59 a; III.,
48	d, 62 a, 73; IV., 48d,53 b, 73
Gutbrun, 8 a Guyug, Khan, 17 n Guzerat, kingdom of, 23 n, 26 a, 29 f, 33 e, 45 d
Gwalior captured by the English,
49	c
Habeas Cob pus Act, 88 a, 42 d, 50 b, 51 a, 62 a Habicht, 67 e Habington, Win., 61 a Hacket, David, 67 d; Phil., 69 a Haco the Good, of Norway, 11 c; II., 13 c; V., 17 c; VII., 17 c, 19 d; VIII., 19 d Hagek, 32 c Hagen, von der, 67 e Hague, alliance, 43 a, e Hainault, 27 g Hakluyt, Rich., 60 a Haland acquired by Sweden, 19 c Halde, du, 63 e Hales, Alexander of, 24 a Hales, Steph., 64 c, 70 c Halidon Hill, battle of, 18 e Halifax, lord, 42 e Hall’s Chronicle, 60 d Hall, capt. Basil, 70 c Hallam, Henry, 70 c Haller, C. L. von, 64 c, 67 d Halley, 64 c Haluka, 17 m Ham, defeat at, 20 c Hamadan ceded to the Porte, 45 b Hamaker, 67 e Hamann, 70 a Hambois, Dr. J., 60 f Hamburgh, 8 e, 17 b, 44 d, 48 d, 62 c, 59 e
Hamerken, Thomas, 22 b Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh, b; William, 64 e, 69 c, 70 a; American, 49 f Harair, 23 n Hammer, von, 70 c Hammond, 65 a Hampden, J., 34 a; Dr., 70 a Hampshire, New, granted to J, Mason, 37 e
Hampton Court, 60 e, 64 e Hamzah, 33 c Hamza Bey, 23 m Handel, G. F., 63 e, 65 d Handveste, first, 17 b, 56 a Hanneman, Sam., 70 b Hanover, charter for,52 c; house of, 42 d ; conferred on theduke of Brunswick-Lunenburg, 40 e Hanoverian electorate acknowledged, 43 c Hanover taken possession of by the French, 50 a; occupied by Prussians, 53 c
Hanseatic league, 16 g, 17 a, 24 d, 28 e, 32 e, 59 c Hapsburgh, house of, 16 g, 21 h,
28 b, 58 b, 62 b, 73 Harcourt, count, 18 f Hardenburg, 53 c, 65 c, 66 a Hardicanute, 12 c Harding, 70 b Hardouin, ville, 17 a Hardyng, John, 22 b, 60 d Hare, 70 c Harfleur, taken, 20 d Hargrave, James, 63 c Hariri, 15 b Harlow, victory at, 20 c Hannenopulus, Constantines, 19 b Haro, C'onde de, ministry of, 35 b Harold I., of England, 12 c; II.,
12 c, 67 b
Harold II., of Denmark, 11 c; III., 13 c; Harfragie, k. of Norway, 7 c, 9 c, 11 c, 12 c,
66 a; III., of Norway, 13 c Harper, 65 d
Harrington, Jno., 61 a; James, 63d
Harris, James, 64 b; Jno., 64 c Harrow school, 59 e Harrowby, lord, 61a Harry the minstrel, 61 a Harry, blind, 24 b Hartley, D., 64 b Harun al Rachid, 6 d, 7 e, 9 e Harvard college founded, 37 e Harvey, Wtn., 60 c Hasan the Long, 23 m Hasein, sultan, 19 n Hashem the Just, 6 c, 7 e Hasein-Mirza, 23 1 Haslerig, sir Arthur, 34 a Haase, J.A.,65d Hastings, battle of, 12 c ; the Dane, 8 a; lord, 54 d; Warren, 46 c, 50 b Hastonbek, victory at, 47 c Hatfield, battle of, 4 a Hats, party of in Sweden, 44 e,
48 d
Hangwitz, 53 c Hauy, 67 e, 70 b Havanna conquered by the English, 46 c, 49 e Haveus, Tbeod., 60 e Havre de Grace, 30 d, 46 b
Hawes, Stephen, 24 b, 61 a Hawke, adm., 42 d, 46 c Hawke wood, sir John, 18 i, 57 b Hawkins, admiral, 30 c, 33 f: J., 60 d
Hawskbury, lord, 51 a Hawksmoor, Nic., 64 e Haydn, Jos., 65 d, 69 c Hayman, Francis, 69 c Hayraddin, Barbarossa, 29 d . Hayti, kingdom of, 55 b Hayward, J., 60 d Head, sir F., 55 c Hearne, Thos., 64 d Heath, 69 c; sir R., 37 e Heber, Reg., 66 a Hebraists, 67 e Hebrides, 26 b, 11 c Hedwig, q. of Poland, 19 g, 73 Heeren, 67 e, 70 c Haem, J. David, 69 b Heerban of Charlemagne, 8 e Hegel, 67 d,e; G. W. F., 70 a Heideggen, 40 a Heilbronn, 32 c, 36 c Hein, naval successes of, 36 a Heine, 67 e
Heinsius, 59 e; grand-pensionary, 40 c, 42 d, 43 a Hejira,or flight ofMohammed, 5d Helena of Mecklenburg, 50 a;
St., discovery of, 26 a Heligoland, ceded to England, 63 a
Helmers, 65 b Helmont, Bap. v„ 60 c, 64 b Helvetian republic, 50 a, 52 b Helvetian possessions lost by Austria, 21 g Helvetius, 48 a, 64 b Helvoet Sluys, v., 57 b, 18 e Hemans, Mrs., 65 a Hemling, Hans., 24 c Hemoo, 33 e Hemsheck, J., 69 b Hemsterhius, 63 e Henault, 64 d Hendinos, 3 a Hengist, 2 a Hengstenberg, 52 g Henrietta Maria, 34 a Henries, Three, war of, 30 d Henry, duke of Bavaria, 14 f Henry’s administration in France,
0 A,
Henry, duke of Anjou, 30 d Henry, Don, infante of Aragon, 20 b
Henry I., England, 14 d, 56 a ;
II.,	14 d, 57 a, b; III., 16 e; IV., 18 e, 20 d; V., 20 d; VI., 20 d, 61 a; VII., 20 d, 61 a ; VUI., 26 c. 58 a Henry I., France, 12 d, 72; II., 26 d, 30 d. 60 a, 72; III., 30
d.	60 a, 72; IV., 30 d, 34 b, 59 c, 72; V., 72 Henry I., of Germany, 10 e; II.,
17	k; III., emp., 12 e, 73; IV., 12 e, 14 f, 73; V., 14 f, 73 ; VI., 14 f, 73
Henry I., emp. of Hayti, 65 b Henry I., of Castile, 16 b, i; II., of Leon and Castile, 18 c; HI.,
18	c; IV., 20 b
Henry of Luxemburgh, 18 g ; of Meisnia, 16 g; I., of Na'varre, 16 b; Frederic, stadt. Netherlands, 36 a; k. of Portugal, 31 a ; d. of Saxony, 14 f; of Thuringia, 16 g; of Valois, k. of Poland, 33 a; of Huntingdon, 15 b
Henry, Robt., 64 d; Patr., 63 d Henslow, rev. J. S., 70 b Henzi, conspiracy of, 43 b Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, 30 b Heraclius, 5 c; prince of Georgia. 48 f
Herald’s college founded, 19 b Herat, 29 e, 33 d, 45 c, 54 b Herbart, 70 a Herbelot, 63 e, 64 d Herbert, lord, of Cherbury,
64	b
Herculaneum, 64 a, e Herder, 63 e, 64 b, 65 c, 70 a Hereditary fiefs, 8 e; nobility formed, 8 e Hereward, 12 c Herman, 67 e Hermandad, 20 b, 58 c Hermann, 69 a Hermannus-Controctus, 13 b Hermetic, 2 b Hermes, 65 c
Herrenhausen, 42 c, 44 c, e Herrenhutters, rise of, 44 b Herrera, Ant., 59 e, 60 d.; Fern, de, 61 b
Herrick, Bob., 61 a Herschel, Bir Wm., 46 c, 64 a, c, 70 b; sir John, 70 b Herz, 65 d Hesdin taken, 30 d Hess, Hen., 69 a Hesse Cassel, k. of Sweden becomes prince of, 43 c Heveningnam, 34 a Hewson, conspiracy of, 45 f Hexham, battle of, 20 d Heyne, Hein., 65 c, 67 e Heywood, Jno., 61 a; Thos., 61 a Hieres, naval victory in the bay of, 42 d, 50 b
Hieroglyphics, phonetic, 67 e Higden, Rainulph, 19 b ; Ralph,
O’Higgins, 55 b High commission, court. of, in Scotland, 34 a Highland Host, 38 c Highlands devastated by English, 42 d Hildebrand, 6 e, 13 a
Hillaire, Geoffrey, St., 70 b Hilliard, Nic., 69 d Hilton, 69 c Himmalah, Chinese conquests extended to the, 49 d Hiramel, 65 d Hincmar, 24 a Hind, 70 b
Hindoos, revolt of, 41 h Hindostao, famine in, 23 n Hire, Lawrence de la, 69 e Hispaniola, colony at, 29 g Hispanus, Peter, 24 a Historians, 19 b; English, 60 d, 70 c; French, 60 d, 64 d, 70 c; German, 60 d; Italian, 60 d, 64 d; Spanish. 60 d. 64 d Hixem I., of Cordova, 10 c; II., 12 a; III., 12 a Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, 44 b Hobbema, 69 b Hobbes, Thos., 59 a, 64 b Hoccleve, 24 b Hoche, general, 50 b, 52 c Hochkirchen, victory of, 48 b Hochot, 36 c Hocbstedt, 42 c, 43 c Hody, H., 63 e Hoek, J. van, 69 a Hoemoeophatic system, 70 b Mofer, 52 c
Hoffmann, Fr., 64 c, 67 e; E.
Tb. W., 65 c Hoffmannsualdau,61 c Hogarth, William, 69 c Hogg, Jas., 65 a Hohenfreidburgh, victory of, 44 c Hohenlinden, victory of, 52 c Hohenstaufen, house of, 14 f, 16 g, 68 a, 73
Hohenzollern, house of, 73 Holbach, baron von, 64 b Holbein, Hans, 24 c, 59 e, 69 a, d Holberg, Lud. v., 65 b Holcot, Robert, 24 a Holcroft, Thos., 65 a Holinshed’s, R., Chronicle, 60 d Hollingshed, 59 e Holkam house, Norfolk, 64 e Holkar, 49 c Holkar, house of, 54 d Holland, 27 g, 42 c, 47 a, 62 a Holland and Belgium, union of,
the
Holland joined to France, 60 a, b Holland, Napoleon, kingdom of, 66 a
Holland, earl of, 34 a; lord, 51 a;
sir N./64 e Hollar, Wen., 69 c Hollis, 34 a
Holstein, counts of, 22 d Holstein subdued by the Danes, 17 a; exchanged for Olden-burgh and Delmenhorst, 48 c ; overrun by the Russians and Swedes, 53 a
Holstein-Gottorp, house of, 44 d, 48 d, f, 73; treaty of partition of with Denmark, 28 e HoUtein-Oldenburg, count of, l>e-comes king of Denmark, 21 h Holte, Thos., 60 e Holy alliance, 52 d, 53 c, 66 h Holy league, 26 c, 27 a, f, 28 b, 58b
Holyrood bouse founded, 14 c Holy wood, John, 17 a Home, Sir E., 70 b Home, H., 64 b Homer, edited in Athens, 22 b Homs, defeat at, 54 a Hone, 51 a Hongre, le, 64 e
Honorins and Arcadius divide the Roman world, 3 e Honorius I., pope, 5 a; II., 15 a; III., 16i; IV., 16 i; the Mystic, 24 a Hontanon, 60 e Hood, admiral, 46 b, 50 h Hooft, Piet. Corn., 61 c Hooglev, English factory at, 41 h Hoogvliet, 65 b
Hook, Nath., 64 c, d ; Tb., 65 a Hooker, botanist, 70 b Hdpital, I’, 30 d Hope, 70 b, entom.
Hops in England, 59 b Hormisdas, 3 d, f Horn, baron, 48 d Horn, count, 32 a; gen., 59 a Home, 29 d
Horneck, Oltocarde, 19 b Horsa, 2 a Horsfield, 70 b Horsley, 65 d Hortense, 72
Horticultural societies, 67 b
Hoskins, John, 69 d
Hospinian, 31 e
Hossein, 5 d
Hoste, capt, 50 b
Hotel des Invalids, 39 c,63 a,64e
Hotharo, admiral, 50 b
Hotspur, 20 c
House and Window tax, 62 d Houatan, 55 b Hoveden, Roger de, 15 b Howard, sir E., 26 c; lord, 30 c ; painter, 69 c
Howe, adm., 47 g, 50 b; general, 46c
Huber, 70 b
Hubertsburgh, peace of, 47 c, 48 b, 62 b
Hudson, Jo., 63 e
Hudson’s bay discovered, 37 e;
ceded to England, 45 f; cora-. pany, English, 41 k Huerta, Vine. Garc. de la, 65 b Hugh, brother to Phil. I. of France, 12 d
Hugh of Vermandois, 13 b Hughes, Th., 61 a
Hugo the Great, 10 d; Victor, 65 c, 67 e; count of Provence, 10 e
Hugolinus, 17 a Huguenots, 30 d, 33 f, 34 a, b, 42 c, 63 c Holl, adm., 55 a Hullah, 65 d Hullmann, 67 e Humayun,e. of the Moguls, 29 f, 33 e
Humbert, general, 50 b Humboldt, baton, 70 b Hume, D., 63 e, 64 b, d; Jos.
63 d, 51 a Hummel, 65 d Humphrey, duke, 20 d Hunald, 6 d Hungarians, 9 c
Hungary, 11 c, 13 c, 15 c, 17 g, 19 h, 21k, 28 d, 32 d, 36e,43 e, 47 d
Hungary ceded to Austria, 41 f, 58 b; a fief of the Romish church, 13 a; first hereditaiy king of, 11 c; freed from taxes, 67 a: invaded by the Turks, 47 d; laid waste by the Mon-gols, 17 f
Hungerford market opened, 50 b Hunniades, John, 21 k, 22 g, 23 k
Huns compelled to embrace Christianity, 6 d; ravage Germany and July, 10 e; White, wars of with Parthia, 3 f; invade Italy, 8 e Hunt, H., 50 b, 66 a, 67 d ; L.,
Inglis, sir Robert, 51 a, 67 d, 69 d Ingres, 69 d
Ingria ceded to Russia, 33 b, 45 a Ingulphus, 13 b inigils, 6 a Innoceut II., pope, 15 a; III., 15 a; IV., 16 i; V., 16 i, VI., 19 a; VII., 22 a; VIII., 22 a; IX., 31 e; X.,35h,40 a; XI., 40 a; XII., 40 a; XIII., 44 b
Inquisition, 16 i, 27 d, 56 c Inquisition in Modena, 48 a; Naples, 31 d, 47 f; Netherlands, 27 g; Portugal, 26 a; Parma, 47 f; Sicily, 27 d ; Spain, 20 b, 22 a, 51 c, 52 g; Toulouse, 16 i; Tuscany, 47 e Inscriptions, Acad, des, 63 e Irutrument of government, 38 a Interim, 27 e, 28 b Investitures, 5 a, 12 c, e, 13 a, 14 g, 15 a
Ionian islands captured by the
70
Jamestown founded, 37 e Jane d’Albert, 30 d Jangez Khan, 17 n, 56 c Janin, Jules, 65 c Janizaries, 191,23 k, 33 c, 37 a, 45 b, 54 a, 57 b. 67 a Jansenisls, 35 b, 40 a, 42 c, 44 b Jansenius, bishop of Y pres, 35 h Jauuarius, St., order of, instituted, 44 a
Japan, first intercourse of the Dutch with, 36 a Japanese embassy to the pope, 31 e Japanese trade lost by Portugal,
Hunter, John, 70 b; Wm., 70 b Huntley, earl of, revolts, 30 b HunnazII.,3 f; III., 3 f Hurwuntghur conquered, 29 f Huskisson, Wm., 60 b, 66 d, 67 c, d
Hues, John, 21 i, 22 a Hussan Subah, 9e, 13 e Hussanees, 9 e Hussein, Shah sultan, of Pereia, 41 ?
Hussein, Mohammed, 49 b Hussites, 16 i, 21 i, 31 e Hutcheson, Thos., 64 b Hutchinson, Lucy, 64 d Hutchinsonians, rise of, 44 b Hutton, Charles, 64 c, 70 b Hutton, V.,59 e Huygens, 64 c Huysum, Jo. v., 69 b Hyde, earl of Clarendon, 38 b Hyde. Thos., 63 e Hyder Ali, 49 c
Iberians, 2 b
Ibrahim, khalif of Damascus, 7 e Ibrahim, sultan, 37 a ; pasha, 54 a
Ibry, 30 d
Iceland subjected, 17 e; foundation of the republic of, 9 c; company, Danish, 36 f Ichangin, 23 m Ichan,sbah, 23 m Iconium, kingdom of, 15 e Ida, king of Bernicia, 2 a 1 Aland, A. W., 65 c Iglau, compact of, 21 i Ignatius Loyola, 27 e Igor of Russia, 11 c Ildefooso, historian and moralist, 5b
Ildefonso, St., pacification of, 46
a.	47 g Ilek, 13 e Illiger, 70 b
Illinois joins the Union, 55 a Illuminati, rise of the society of, 47 c
Illyrian provinces, 50 a, 52 c Imad alDaulah, 11 e Image worship, 7 a, d Imams, descent of, 5 e Imperial chamber, 28 b, 58 c Imperial family statutes, 50 a Imprimerie lloyale, 26 d Ina, 4 a, 6 a Incas, 29 g Incendiary fires, 50 b Inchbald, Eliz., 65 a Incledon, 65 d
In Coenh Domini, 27 e, 31 e, 35 h, 48 a
Income tax, 50 b, 66 d India, 29 f, 33 e, 37 c, 41 h, 49 c, 54 d; act for the government of, 49 c ; British influ. ence universal in, 54 d ; commerce of, shared by Alexandria and Constantinople, 5 d India, East, company, Danish,
44	d ; Dutch, 36 a, 37 c; English, 30 c, 37 c, 41 h, 54 d; French, 39 c, 46 b, 63 c; Swedish, 44 e
India, governor-general appointed for, 36 a; overrun by the Mahrattas, 45 d; invaded by the Persians, 45 c; Seiks ravage, 45 d; Portuguese in, 58 b; invaded by Tamerlane, 23 n; missions sent to, 44 b; passage to discovered, 22 b Indemnity, act of, 42 d Independents, rise of, 31 •
Index Expurgatorius abolished, 46 a
Indiana joins the Union, 55 a Indigo, act for the cultivation of,
45	f
Indore taken, 54 d Indulf, king of Scotland, 10 b Indulgences, 27 e, 38 b Infernal machine, 50 a Ingelend, T., 61 a Ingelstrdm, 53 e,
English, 50 a, b; acquired by France, 50 a; republic or,
52	e, f; occupied by Russians,
53	e
Ipsara taken, 54 a
Irak invaded by the Persians,
49	b
Ireland, conquest of, 14 d; united to England, 50 b; the French attempt the invasion of, 46 b,
50	b; martial law in, 50 b; traded with, 17 h
Irene, 7 d, 9 d
Irish Catholics, revolt of, 34 a; church temporalities bill, 57 a; coercion bill, 51 a; invade England, 12 c; monasteries, 4 a; parliament, independence of acknowledged, 46 c; rebellion, 50 b, 66 a; volunteers, armed associations of, 46 c Irishmen, united, society of, 60 b, 51a
Irnerius, 15 b
Iron mask, incarceration of,
Irving, Washington, 65 a Isaac, exarch of Ravenna, 4 d; I., of Gr. empire, 13 d; II., 15 d ; of Ghizni, lie; lien., 24 c
Isabella of Castile, 20 b; sister of Charles V., 28 e; q. of Edward II., 18 e; of France, 35 a ; of Portugal, 27 f, 28 b; q. of Spain, 51 c, 72 Isdegerdes II., 3 f Isidorus, historian, &c., 5 b Ising, dynasty of, 37 d Isle, 1’, Adam, 2d c Ismail of Ghizne, 11 e; shah, 29 c,e; II., k. of Persia, 33 d; Samani, 9 e
Ismail taken by the Russians, 48
f,	49 a
Iamailoff, embassy of, 45 e Isolani, 59 a Ispahan, 19 m, 29 c, d, 33 d, 45 c, 60 a, e
lstria, defeat off, 14 f Istria, d’, Capo, 54 a Institute, French national, 67 e Italian cities begin to form into free republics, 4 d; cities, league of, 14 f; republics, 8 e, 50 a, 52 e ; opera in Paris, 64 a ; in London, 64 a Italy, 4 d, 6 e. 10 e. 14 f, 16 f, 31 c. 35 c, 39 d, 43 g, 62 e Italy, ravaged by the Franks, 3 c; southern, subject to the Greek empire, 9 d ; invaded by the Huns and Saracens, 8 e, 10 e; invaded by the Lombards, 3 d, 6e; invaded by the Ostrogoths,
3 c, e; treaty for the neutrality of, 47 e Ithaca, 52 e
Iran I., of Russia, 22 h, 73; II., 73; III., 73; IV., c. of Russia, 29 b, 33 b, 58 a, 59 a; V., and Peter, emp. of Russia, 41 e; VI., emp. of Russia, 46 a
Ivanovitsch, Dimitry, 19 i Ivara, F., 64 e Ivrea, margravate of, 12 e Iviy, victory of, 30 d
Jaafar, khan, k. of Persia, 49 b Jachiel, Nathan ben, 16 b Jackson, Andrew, 55 a; general, 55 a, 66 a; J., 69 c; eng., 69c
Jacob II., Ar., 18 b; k. of
Sicily, 16 h Jacobi, 65 c
Jacobin principles, spread in Italy, 47 e; clubs, 46 b, 50 a Jacobinism, edicts against, 48 b Jacobins, sway of, 46 b Jacobites, victory of, 38 b; insurrections of, in England, 42 c, d
Jacqueline of Hainault, 20 d Jacquerie, 18 f, 19 b, 56 a, 57 c Jacques I., emp. of Hayti, 55 b Jaffa stormed, 15 e Jagellon, house of, 19 g, 21 i, 22
g,	28 c, 33 a Jaleladdin Akbar, 33 •
Jamaica takeu by the English, 38
b, 41 k, 62 b, 63 c Jamblichus translated, 24 a James I., of Aragon, 16 b James I., k. of England, 34 a, 58 a; II., 38 b, 42d, 62 a James I., k. of Scotlaud, 20 e, 61 a; II.,20 c; III.,20c; IV., 20 c; V., 26 b; VI., 30 b Jameson, George, 69 d; prof., 70 b
Bur-
35 b
Jarchi, 15 b Jarcke, 67 d Jardin, Kaxel du, 69 b Jardin des plantes, 64 c Jardine, 70 b Jarnac, 30 d Jatinski, 36 i Java, 26 a, 32 a, 52 a Jay, 49 f
Jaya Chandra, 23 n Jean-sans peur, duke of gundy, 20 e Jeaurat, 70 b Jedburg founded, 14 c Jefferson, president, 55 a, 67 d Jeffrey of Monmouth, 15 b Jeffreys, bloody assizes of, 38 b Jehandar, shah, k. of India, 45 d Jehangin, of Mogul, 37 c Jelel ad din, 17 m; Feroz, 23 n Jelaleddiu Akbar, 37 c Jemappe, victory of, 52 a Jena, victory of, 50 a, 52 c, 53 e Jenner, Ed., 70 b Jenkinson, 67 d Jenkinson, Anthony, 33 d Jenyns, 70 b Jephson, 65 a
Jerome, of Prague, 21 i, 22 a ;
Buonaparte, 50 a, 72 Jersey retained by the English, 20 e
Jerusalem captured by the Arabs,
5	c; Persians, j> a, e; by Saladin, 15 e; by the Turks, 13 e, f, 17 i; redeemed by Rich., earl of Cornwall, 16 e ; church of, lost to Christianity,
6	a; kingdom of, 13 b; mosque founded at, 5 d
Jervis, admiral, 50 b Jesuits, 27 e, 39 a, 44 b, 46 b, 47 e, 52 f, 58 b, 61 d Jesuits in Abyssinia, 35 h; in America, 45 f; in Bohemia, 32 c; in China, 41 i; in France, 30 d. 34 b, 46 b, 48 a; in Holland, 44 b; in Hungary, 32 d; in Italy, 52 g; in Paraguay, 37 e; in Poland, 33 a; in Portugal, 26 a, 46 a, 48 a; in Russia, 48 f, 53 e; TwoSici-lies, Ac., 47 f, 48 a; Spain,47 g, 48 a; in Switzerland, 35 a; in Sweden, 32 f; in Venice, 39 d
Jeswunt Zingh, rajah, 41 h Jeux, Academia de, 19 b Jewels, grant to the p. of Wales for, 51 a
Jewish nation, congress of, 52 g Jews, bill in favour of, 51 a; acts for naturalising, 46 d ; persecution of, 4 b, 13a, 14d,16e,i,
18	f, 22 a, 26 a, 27 d, 48 a, 67 a
Joachim, margrave of Brandenburg, 32 g; I. of Prussia, 73;
11..	73
Joachim-Frederic, 36 h, 73 Joan, pope, 9 a Joanes, Juan de, 69 c Joanna, of Castile. 27 f, 31 b;
1.,	queen of Naples, 18 k; II., 21 ro; queen of Navarre, 16 b
Jodelle, Et., 61 c John d’Albret, 27 f; of Alexandria, 5b; I., of Aragon, 18 b; Don, of Austria, 31 b, 32 a, 39 b; of Bohemia, 18 i; duke of Burgundy, 21 f; II., of Castile, 20 b; of Damascus,
7	b; king of Denmark, 22 c; king of England, 14 d, 16 e, 56 a; king of France, 18 f, 72;
1.,	Comnenus, Gr. emp., 15 d; Palasologus, 191; Cantacuzene,
19	I; ViI., 23 i; Latin emp.,
17	k; I, of Leon and Castile,
18	c; Gaston, de Medici, of Tuscany, 43 g; II., Navarre,
20	b; of Padua, 60 e; Albert, king of Poland, 22 g; Casimir, of Poland, 41 d ; I., pope, 3d-
11..	3d; III., 3d; IV., 5 a ;
V., 5a; VI., 7 a; VII., 7 a,
VIII.,9a; IX.,9a ; X.,lla XI., II a; XII., 11 a; XIII. 11 a; XIV., II a; XV.,Ua; XVI.. 11 a; XVIII., 13 a-
XIX.,13a; XXL, 16i;XXII.,
19a; XXIII.,22a ; I., of Portugal, 18a.20a,72; II.,20a 58a;IIl.,26a,31a; IV.,35a’ 39 a, 72; V., 42 a, 72; VI SI b, 72; Plato, of Ravenna,’
4 d; king of Sweden, 17 d • IIL, 32 f, 73; Sigisraond, of Transylvania, 32 d, 73 John, St., of Jerusalem, order of, 15 a, 19 k
Johnson, Sam., 65 a, 70 b« general, 55 a	’
Join ville, John de, 16 i, 17 a
19 b	’ Joliba, expedition to explore the.
70 c
Jolintha, 16 g Jomine, gen., 67 a '	*	11 c, 15c
GENERAL INDEX.
Jomelli, 65 d
Jones, Gale, 51 a; Inigo, 60 e; sir W., 65 a
Jonkoping, peace of, 53 a Jonaon, Ben., 59 e, 61 a Jordaens, Jacob, 69 a Jordan, Mrs., 65 a Jorgens, 59 c Joscelyn, 15 e Jose, Ant, 65 b
Joseph I., of Germany, 43 c, 73; II., 47 c, 62 c, d; I., of Hun* gary, 43 e; Emanuel, of Portugal, 42 a, 72; I., king of the Romans, 40 e; Napoleon, of Spain, 50 a, 51 c, 72 Josephine, q. of Napoleon, 50 a, 72
Josse of Moravia, 21 h Jourdan, general, 50 a, 52 a, b, c Journal des Savans, 63 e Jouvenet, J., 69 d Jovius, Paul, 60 b, d Judges, twelve, appointed, 66 c Judicial combats suppressed, 16 f Judicial torture, 19 o, 47 c, 56 c Julian, count, 6 c Julian of Toledo, 5 b; II., 27 c Juliana Maria, 48 c Juliers, duchy of, 36 c Julius 111., pope, 31 e Jumla Khan, conquests of, 41 h Jumma Musjeed built, 37 c Juno discovered, 70 b Junot at Lisbon, 50 a, 51 b Junius, letters of, 46 c, 63 d Junta, administrative, 51 b Jury, trial by, 8 a, 30 a, 56 c, 62 a, 66 a, c
Jurisprudence, 66 c, 68 c, 62 b Jurje II., 17 h
Jus Consuetudinarium Hungaris, 28 d
Jussieu, 70 b
Justices of Assize instituted, 56 c Justiciary reformed in Spain, 20 b Justin, 3 e; II., 3 e Justinian 3 e; convokes the fifth council of Constantinople, 3 d; war of, with the Ostrogoths, 3 c; pandects and code of laws of, 3 e; II., 5c, 7d Justiza, 56 a Jutes, 2 a Jutland, 11 c, 28 e
Kaaha, Mohammed’s pilgrimage to, 5 d
Kabul possessed by Baber, 29 f Kader, khalif, 11 e, 13 e
Kadjar dynasty, 54 b Kaher, khalif, 11 e Kahler, 70 a Kahoul, defeat of, 49 a Kaifong Fn, 17 n Kai Khatu, 17 m Kaikobad, 23 n Kaim, khalif, 13 e Kaisersberg, John Gellcr v., 24 b Kalderoon, 29 c, e Kalil Bey, 23 m Kalka, defeat on, 17 h Kalisch, 19 f, 41 c, 45 a, 53 o Kalkbrenner, 65 d Kalliwoda, 65 d Kam-Hi, of China, 41 i, 45 e Kaminiek ceded to Turkey, 41 d, f; to Poland, 41 f Kandahar, revolt of Afghans in, 45 c; acquired by Persia, 29 e, 37 b, 45 c ; reduced by the Tartars, 19 m; attacked by the Usbeks, 37 c Kanikoff, 53 e KansA-Ghori, 29 c, d Kant, Emmanuel, 52 g, 67 d, e, 70 a
Karacoram, 17 n Karamites, 9 e, lie Karamsin, Nik., 65 b, 70 c Kara Mustapha Kioprili, 41 f Kara Ulugh Otliman, 23 m Kandesh, kingdom of, founded, 23 n
Karelia ceded to Russia, 45 a Karism reduced by the Tartars, 19 m
Karismian Turks, 17 i Kasan, siege of, 29 b, 33 b Kasova, victory of, 19 1 Kasvin, capital of Persia, 33 d Katsbach, defeat on, 52 c Kaufman, Angelika, 69 a Kaulbach, 69 a
Kaunitz, count, ministry of, 47 c Kean, Edm., 65 a Keats, Jno., 65 a Keble, 65 a Kehl restored to the Empire, 40 e Keightley, 70 c Keiser, R., 65 d Kelly, II., 65 a; W.,
Kellgren, 65 b Kelso founded, 14 c Kemble, Jno. P., 65 a; Chas., 65 a ; Fanny, 65 a Kemeni, 40 g Ksmpfer, 41 g, 64 a Kempis, Thomas a, 22 b, 24 a Kenilworth, 60 e Kenmure, lord, executed, 42 d Kennet, \V., 64 d Kenneth of Scotland, 8 b ; III., 10 a, b; IV., 10 b Kent, kingdom of, 2 a, 4 a Kent large county meeting, 51 a Kent, earl of, 18 e; Win., 64 e Kentucky admitted into the Union,
Kenwulf, 8 a Kepler, 32 e, 59 e, 60 c Keppel, adm., 46 b Kerkholm, 36 g, i Kerman, 29 e
Kertsch ceded to Russia, 48 f
Kesselsdorf, 43 c Ketilmundsoo, Mattli., 19 d Keux, Le, 69 c Kexholm taken, 36 g, i Khaja Jehan,23 n Khalifat, 7 e, 9 e, 11 e, 12 a, 13 e, 56 a
Khalifs, 15 f, 17 m, 56 b Khalil, sultan, 23 1 Khanian era, 19 n Kharizm independent, 15 f; sultans of, 17 m
Kherim khan Fund, king of Persia, 49 b
Khilji dynasty, 23 n Khitan, 17 n Khondemir, 23 1 Khorassan overrun, 33 vaded by the Persians, 49 b; reduced by the Persians, 29 e; by the Tartars, 19 m Khosroo, revolt of, 37 c Khuzetan ceded to the Porte, 45 b
Kia King, 54 e Kiachta, 63 c Kidd, Dr. 70 a, b Kiel, peace of, 53 a Kielmeyer, C. Fr. v., 70 b Kien-Long, emp. of China, 45 e, 49 d, 54 e
Kilbournou ceded to Russia, 48 f Kilij Arslan, 15 d Killykrankie, 38 b Kilmarnock, lord, executed, 42 d Kilwarden, lord, chief justice, 51 a
King’s Bench, 16 e, 38 a,
Kinker, 65 b Kinloss founded, 14 c Kioprili, rise of the family of, 41 f Kiovia, capture of, 19 i Kiow burnt, 17 f; ceded to Russia, 41 e
Kiov, grand duke of, 13 c Kipchak, khan of, 17 h, n, 19 i, 22 h
Kippis, Dr. And., 70.c Kirby, 70 a, b Kirk-Klisseh, defeat of, 54 a Kisf, Carl, 65 b Kisfaludy, Alex., 65 h Kitts, St., settled, 37 e Klaproth, 67 e Kleber, 54 a Klein, 65 d Kleist, 65 c Klinger, 65 c Klober, 67 d Klopstock, 65 c
Kloster-Zeven, abrogation of the convention of, 46 c Kneller, Godfrey, 69 c Knigge, 64 b Knight errands, 13 b Knights of St. John dissolved, 26 c
Knights templars, 15 a, 18 b, f, 19 a
Knighton, Henry, 19 b Knobelsdorf, 53 c Knolles, R., 60 d Knout introduced into Russia, 29 b
Knowle, 60 e Knowles, S., 65 a Knox, American, 49 f; John, 26 b, 31 e, 59 e
Knut, king of Denmark, 13 c Knutson, Charles, 22 e Knyvett, Mrs., 65 d Kock, Jos., 69 a; Paul dc, 65 c, 70 c
Kochanowski, 61 c Koeppen, 70 a Kohbrausch, 70 c Kondemir, 22 b Konigsberg, 17 e, 53 e Konigsrnark, 36 d Koniyeh, battle of, 54 a Koran, publication of, 5 b, d Koributh, 22 g Korsakow, 52 c, 53 e Kosegarten, 65 c Koskiusco, 48 e, 53 c Kossova, defeat near, 21 k Ko-tou, 54 e
Kotzebue, 52 c, 65 c, 66 a Krarnach, Lucas, 59 e, 69 a Krasicki, 65 b Krause, 70 a Kray, general, 52 c Krazinpki, 48 e Kremlin fortified, 22 h Kretschmann, 65 c Kreuzer, 65 d Krim Gherai, 49 a KristnaRay raja, 29 f Kronenburg, castle of, 32 e Krotzka, 43 e Krug, 70 a
Kruswiez, dukes of, 9 c Kublai Khan, 17 n Kudah fortified, 36 i Kufa, war at, 5 d Kultub ad din, 15 f Kunnersdorf, defeat of, 48 b, f Kuhersky, 69 a
Kurdistan added to the Ottoman empire, 29 c Kur Khan, 15 f Kurnaul, battle of, 45 c Kutahia, peace of, 66 b Kutchuk-kainardji, peace of, 48 f, 49 a, 62 b Kutteb ab din, 23 n Kutusoff, 53 e Kyd, Thos., 61 a
Ladislas I„ of Hungary, 13 c ; of Naples, 18 k; !V.,ofPoland, 36 i
Laennec, R. T., 70 b Lafayette, 46 b, 49 f, 55 a, 62 a, 67 a
Lafeldt, general, 42 c, 43 a Lagos, cape, victory off, 46 c Lagrange, 67 e, 70 b Lahore, kingdom of, 23 n, 29 f, 54 c
Lairesse, Gerhard, 69 b Lake, commander, 54 d Lalande, 64 c Lalljestraele, 65 b Lally, 46 b, 49 c Lamarck, 70 b Lamartine, 65 c Lamb, Chas., 65 a Lambert, 64 b; king of Italy, 8 e Lamberlini, pope Benedict XIV., 44 b
Lammenais, de, 67 d, 70 a Lam piero, Domenico, 68 d Lancaster, house of, 18 e, 20 d, 71 Lancaster executed, 18 e Lancers, 59 a Lando, pope, 11 a Landon, Miss, 65 a Lands, Conrad, 57 b Landseer, 69 c Lanfranc, 13 b, 24 a, 57 d Lanfranco, Giov., 68 b, d Langara, defeat of, 47 g Langendyk, Pet., 65 b Langles, 67 e Langtoft, Peter de, 19 b Langton, Stephen, 16 e, 17 a Languedoc, 6 d, 16 f, 39 c Languet, H., 59 d Lanner, 65 d Lannes, general, 50 a Lannoy, 27 d
Lansdowne, marquis, 51 a, 67 d Lantern, battles of, 52 c Lanzi, 70 c Lanzknecbte, 59 a Laon, 10 d, 50 a Laondo settled, 31 a Laplace, 67 e Lapland conquered, 17 d Lapo, Arnolf di, 17 a, 57 d
Legge, chancellor of the exchequer, 46 d Leghorn, 27 c, 35 d Legion of Honour, 50 a, 67 a Legislation and jurisprudence, 56
La an, Peter von, 69 b Lacepede, 70 b Lacretelle, Ch., 70 c Lacroix, de, 65 c Lacy, Roger de, 16 f Ladbrog, Ragnor, 9 c
Lappenberg, Dr., 70 c Laruner, 70 b Larislan acquired by Turkey,37 c Lascaris, John, 17 1; Constantine, 22 b; Theodore, 17 1 Las Casas, 29 g, 70 c Lascy, general, 44 e Lassen, 67 e Lasso, Orl., 60 f.
Lateran council, 15 a; second, 15a; third, 15a; fourth, 16i; fifth, 27 e Latham, 70 b Latimer, 59 e Latin empire, 17 k, 56 b Latin language superseded by the Teutonic, 4 c; by the French, 62 b; commanded to be used in divine service, 5 a; discontinued by act of pari., 42 d Laud, 34 a
Lauderdale, 38 b, 51 a Lauenburg, duchy of, 53 a Lauremberg, 61 c Laurentius, 3 d Lausanne, 28 a Lautrec, 27 d Lavaleja, 55 b Lavoisier, 67 e, 70 b Law’s bank in France, 62 d, 63 c; Mississippi bank, 42 c ; Mississippi scheme, 42 c I.awes, Hen., 65 d Lawrence, sir Thomas, 69 c; capb,
55	a
Laws, projects for general codes of, in the language of the people, 62 c; of Alfred the Great, 56 c; Aragon code of,
56	c; first code of, in Britain,
4	a; of Charlemagne, 56 c; of Edward the Confessor, 56 c; English, foundation of, 56 c; French, foundation of, 56 c; of Justinian. 3 e; improved by I.eovigild, 2 b; Lombard code of, published, 5 b; Roman, comes into general use, 19 b ; introduction of the Roman and canon, 56 c; revisal of Russian code,36 k; new code of,in Savoy, 47 e; Saxon code of, published,
5	b; code of, for Sweden, 56 c; first written, promulgated at Vislicza, 19 g; of Waldemar, 17 b
Layamon, 15 b Lay bach, congress at, 52 d Layer executed, 42 d Leach, entom., 70 b Leader, 67 d League of Augsburg, c, e; of Cambray, 2 Catholic, 36 c; Catholic, opposed to that of Smalcald,28 b; wars of the, 58 a; Scotch, 34 a; Triple, 38 b, 39 c, 40 b Learmont, Thomas, 17 a Lebrun, Pig., 65 c Lecapenus, lid Lech, 36 c Leek,3 a Lecomte, 64 e
Leczinska, q. of Louis XV., 42 c Lee, Dr., 67 e; gen., 46 c ; Nath., 65 a; Wm.,59 c Lefevre, 69 d
Legal government, first great effort towards, 16 e Legates, papal, sent to the various courts of Europe, 13 a Legation, disputes respecting rights of, 44 a
, 40
5 c. 28 b;
Legitimists, catholic, 67 d; pro-testant, 67 d Legnano, battle of, 14 f Leibnitz, 44 c, 64 c Leicester, earl of, 30 c, 32 a, 60 a Leighton, 34 a Leignitz, victory at, 48 b Leipsic, 36 c, 50 a, 52 c, 59 a fairs, 59 c Leith, 30 b
Leland, J., 59 e, 60 d Lelewel, Joach., 70 c Lely, Peter, 69 d Lemercier, 65 c Lemigius, 4 d
Leo I., Gr. emp., 3 e; IT., 3 e;
III.	, the Isaurian, 6 e, 7 d;
IV.	, 7 d; V., Arminian, 9 d;
VI.	, 11 d
Leo II., pope, 5 a; III., 7 a, IV.,9a; V., 11 a; Vl.,lla;
VII.	, 11 a; VIII., 11 a; IX.,
13 a; X., 27 e; XI., 35 h; XII., 52 g
Leo, 63 e; grammarian, 13 b; Leon., 65 d
Leon, kingdom of, 6 c, 10 c, 12 a Leon and Castile, 16 b, 18 c Leon-Dufour, 70 b Leonard of Pisa, 22 b Leoni, Giac., 64 e Leonicenus, Nic., 60 c Leontius, 5 c, 19 b Leopold I., king of Belgium, 50 b, 52 a, 62 a ; I., emp. of Germ.,
40	e, g, 43 c; II., 47 c; II., grand duke of Tuscany, 52 e, 62 c
Leovigild, 2 b Lepanto, 31 b, c, d, 33 c, fi Leppi, 61 b Lerambert, 64 e Lerma, duke of, 31 a, 35 b Lescot, 60 e Lesghi, war with, 53 e Lesko king of Poland, 17 f; II., 17 f; IV., 9 c, 11 c Lessing, G. E., 63 e, 64 b, 65 c Lesson, 70 b Lestock, adm., 42 d Lestocq, fall of, 45 a Leti, 64 d Letti, 17 e
Letters of Majesty, 36 d; ol Marque, first, 16 a, 56 b Lettres de Cachet, 62 a Leuchtenberg, duke de, 51 b, 72 Leuthen, 48 b Leuwenhoek, 64 c Levant Company chartered, 30 c Levesque, 70 c Lewes, battle at, 16 e Lewis, M. G., 65 a Lexington, skirmish at, 49 f Lex Regia sanctioned, 41a Leyden, Lucas van, 69 b Leyden, dissensions at, 35 h Liberation, war of, 53 e Liberum veto, first instance of,
41	d; confirmed, 48 e Libraries, public, increase, 19 b Libraries founded, 22 b Library of the Fatimites, 7 b; of
Cordova, 7 b; of Matthias Cor-vinus burnt, 28 d; of the Palatine sent to Rome, 35 h Libri, Girolamo dai, 24 c Licensing system, Napoleon’s, 50 a
Lichtenstein, Ulrich v„ 24 b Licinio, Gio. Antonio, 68 c Lidner, 65 b
Liege, revolution in, 47 c ; taken by Marlborough, 42 d Light horse, 63 a Lignitz, battle of, 17 f Ligny, defeat at, 50 a, 53 c Ligorio, Pirro, 60 e Ligurian republic acknowledged, 50 a
Lilburne, 34 a
Lille acquired by France, 39 b, 43 a
Lille, Alan of, 17 a Lilly, 59 e, 60 a Limburg, 27 g Limerick, 38 b Linacre, 59 e Lincoln’s Inn, 64 e Lincoln, battle of, 14 d Lindau ceded to Bavaria, 52 c Lindesferne, 6 a, 57 d Lindley, 65 d, 70 b Lingard, 70 c Linna, 19 b Linnxus, 44 e, 64 c Linva, 2 b, 4 b Linz fortified, 67 a Lippe-Buckeburg, count de la, 46 a
Lippi, Fra Filippo, 24 c, 68 a Lipsius, J., 59 a, 60 b Lisbon, 14 b, 39 a, b, 48 a, 59 Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake, 46 a; patriarchate of, 42 a
Lisle, Rouget de, 65 d Liston, 65 a Litanies first used, 3 d Literature, 9 b, 11 a, 13 b, 15 b, 17 a, 19 b, 22 b, 67 e Lithuania, 19 g, i; incorporated with Poland, 29 a, 33 a; laid waste by the Russians, 41 d ; overrun by the Swedes, 44 e Liverpool railway opened, 50 b Liverpool, lord, 51 a, 67 d Livonia ceded to Russia, 45 a . invaded by the Saxons, 44 f;
subjugated by Sweden, 36 g,
62 b
Livonian knights, 17 e, 28 g,
33 a
Livingston's, Ed., penal code for Louisiana, 66 c Livingstone, sir Alex., 20 c Llewellin, king of Wales, 16 e L’Lorente, 70 c Lloyd, 70 b
Loans, forced, 34 a, 50 a, 66 d
Lobeira, Pasco, 24 b
Lock, Matt., 65 d
Locke, John, 63 d
Loder, 65 d
Lodge, Thos., 61 a
Lodi, victories at, 52 e
Lodi Khan, 37 c
Lodi, Ibrahim, 29 f
Lodomiria acquired by Austria,
47 c, 48 e Loflt, Capel, 67 d Logan, 61 c
Logic, Aristotle’s, comes into repute, 15 b
Logie, Margaret, 18 d Logothetes, Georg. Acrop., 17 a Lohenstein, 61 c Lollards persecuted, 20 d, 26 c Lombard cities, struggle of, 16 f; kingdom, 3 b, 4 d, 6 e, 27 a, 35 f, 43 i
Lombards successful against the Greeks and Franks, 3 b; invade Italy, 3 b; settle in Pannonia,
3 e
Lombardy acquired by the French, 52 c, e; ceded to Austria, 42 c, 62 b
Lombardus, Peter, 24 a Loncarty, victory of, 10 b London, bishopric of, founded,
3 d; bridge, 50 b, 64 e; first charter of, 24 d, 56 a; obtains the right to elect its own mayor, 16 e; mayorof,firat titled‘lord,’ 18 e; tower of, built, 57 d; treaty of, 50 a, 65 a Longhi, 68 b Longinus, 3 c
Longitudes, Bureau of, 67 e Longjuroeau, peace of, 30 d Longlands, Thomas, 24 b Long parliament, 34 a, 38 b Longueville imprisoned, 34 b Loots, 65 b Lord of the Isles, 26 b Lorenzetto, 60 e Lorme, Philibert de, 60 e Lorraine, Claude, 68 b, 69 e Lorraine, house of, 47 c, 52 c, 73;
duke of, 34 b, 39 c, 40 e, g Lorraine divided, 8 e; invaded, 30 d; obtained by France, 42 c, 43 c, 46 b, 62 b; ceded to Germany, 8 g
Lothaire, king of France, 10 d, 72; k. of Italy, 10 e; II.. of Germ., 14 f, 56 a; 11., of Lorraine, 8 e
Lolhiaus, the, subdued, 6 b Lotteries, 64 a Lotto, Lorenzo, 68 c Lorris, William of, 24 b Loudon, 34 b
Louis II., of Anjou, 18 k; of Bavaria, 18 g; lI.,k.of Bohemia, 28 c; of Brunswick, prince, 47 a; II., of France, 8 f, 72; 111.,
8 f, 72; IV., 10 d, 72; V., 10 d, 72; VI., 14 e, 72; VII., 14 e, 72; VIII., 16 f, 72; IX., 16 f, 72; X., 72; XI., 20e, 72; XII., 20e, 72; XIII., 34 b, 72; XIV., 34 b, 39 c,42 c, 62 b, c,64 a, 72; XV.,41 c, 42 c, 46 b, 72; XVI., 46 b, 72; XVII., 72; XVIII., 67 a,72 Louis Philippe, king of the French, 50 a, 67 a
Louis the Pious, emp. of the West, 8 e
Louis I.', of Germany, 73; the German, 8 g, 73; the Child, 8 g, 73; IV., lOe Louis Napoleon, k. of Holland, 50 a, 52 a, 72
Louis the Great, king of Hungary, 19 g, h, 56 a, 57 c Louis II., k. of Italy, 8 e; emp.
of Italy, 10 e Louis of Nassau, 32 a Louis-Philip, Egalitl, d. of Orleans, 72
Louis, king of Sicily, 18 1; k. of Spain, 72
Louis, mount, peace of, 14 d Louisburg taken by the English,
45	f
Louisiana ceded to France, 45 f, 50 a, 51 c; transferred to Spain,
46	c; purchased by U. S., 55 a
Louvel, 50 a
Louvais, war minister in France, 39 c, 63 a Louvet, 65 c, 70 c Louvre at Paris, 26 d, 60 e Lovat, lord, executed, 42 d Lovelace, Rich., 61 a Lovino, Bernardin, 68 d Lowositz, defeat at, 47 c Loyset, 24 c Lubeck, 17 b, 28 e, 52 c Lublin burnt, 17 f, 41 court of, 33 a Lubormirski, revolt of, 41 d Lucans, Cyrilus, 35 h Lucas, 34 a
Lucca restored to independence, 18 g; silk manufacture at, 16 f Lucerne, 18 h, 52 b Lucie, St., 39 c; ceded to England, 50 a, b
Lucius II., pope, 15 a; III., 15 a
; high
Luden, 67 d Ludlam executed, 51 a Ludlow, defeat at, 20 d Ludlow, Edm., 64 d Ludovico, 211
Lugosch, battle at, 47 d, 49 a Luitbert, 6 e
Luitbrand, the Lombard, 6 e Luitprand, historian, 11 b Luke, St., society of, 68 a Lulli, Raymond, 24 a Luna, Don Alvaro de, 20 b Lunablad, 70 c
Luneville, peace of, 60 a, 52 c, 66b
Lupton, T., 61 a Lupus, bishop, 10 a Lusalia ceded to Saxony, 36 c Lusiad published, 31 a Lussac, 70 b
Lutf Ali Khan, king of Persia, 49 b, 54 b
Luther, 27 e, 28 b, 59 e, 60 f, 61 c, d
Lutheranism, 27 e, 28 b, e, f,
59	d
Lutter, 36 c
Liitzen, 36 c, g, 50 a, 52 c, 59 a Luxemburg, 27 g, 39 c, 40 b, 60 e Luxemburgh, house of, 18 g, 73 Luxuries, manners, and customs,
60	a, 64 a Luynes, de, 34 b Luzan, Ign. de, 65 b Lnzzara, 43 i
Luzzi, Mondini de, 19 b Lyamon, 24 b Lydgate, 24 b, 61 a Lyly, Jno., 61 a Lyndhurst, lord, 51 a, 67 d Lyonne, 39 c
Lyons, council at, 16 i; peace of, 35 e; riot at, 50 a; treaty of, 34 b; declares against the National Convention, 50 a; captured by the Republicans, 50 a Lyra, Nicholas de, 19 b Lyttleton, Geo., lord, 65 a
Mably, 64 d
Mabeuze, John de, 69 a, d Macao, 26 a .
Macartney’s, lord, embassy to China, 49 d, 50 b Macbeck, Jno., 60 f Macbeth, 12 b Macdiarmid, Jo., 70 c Macdonald, general, 52 c Macdonough, capt, 65 a Macduff, 12 b Mace, Thos., 65 d Macedonian dynasty, 9 d, 13 d Machiavelli, 27 c, 59 a, d, e, 60 d, 61b
Machinery applied to the industrial arts in England, 63 c, 67 c Macbuca, GO e Mack, general, 52 c Mackenzie, rebel, 55 c Mackintosh, sir J., 65 d, 67 d, e, 70 a, c
Macklin, Ch., 65 a Macleay, 70 b
Macoa recovered by Portugal, 39 a
Macomb, general, 55 a Macpherson, Jas., 65 a Macready, 65 a Maczieiowicz, defeat at, 53 o Madain, conquest of, 5 e Maddy, 70 b Madeira colonised, 20 a Maderno, Car., 60 e Madison, James, 65 a Madoc, 29 g
Madonna di San Sisto, 69 a Madoo Rao, 49 c Madras founded, 37 c Madrid, treaty of, 27 f; insurrection in, 47 g; entered by the English and Portuguese, 42 b; entered by Murat, 51c; captured by Ramiro II., 10 c; captured by Wellington, 51 b, c Madrones discovered, 29 g Maffei, Scipio, 65 b Mafra, monastery of, 64 e Magdalene of France, 26 b Magdeburg ceded to Brandenburg, 36 c ; taken by the imperialists, 36 h; acquired by Prussia, 41 c Magelhaens, 29 g, 60 a , Magi oppress Persarmenia, 3 f Magianism gives way to Mohammedanism, 5 e Magiars, or Hungarians, 9 e Magic practised, 19 b Magister Sententiarum, 24 a Magister, Thomas, 19 b Magna Charta, 16 e, 56 a, 57 a Magnates, insurrection of, 47 d Magnenus, J. C., 60 b, 64 b Magnus I., the Good, of Norway, 13 c; II., 13 c; III., 13 c, 15 c ; Smek, king of Norway, 19 d; I., of Sweden, 17 d Magyar war-system, 21 k Mahadajee Sindia, 54 d Mahichandra Rantone, 23 n Mahmoudiah canal, 54 a Mahmood, of Cabul, 54 c; sultan of Ghizni, lie, 13 f, 23 n; I., Ott. Emp., 45 b, 49 a; II., 54 a
Mahmud Shah, 29 f Mahommed Khodabandeh, 19 n Mahommedans in Spain, 6 c Mahratta power, rise of, 41 h Mahrattas overrun India, 45 d; war of England with, 64 d, 62 b
Mahteddi, khalif, 9 e Mahu, Steph., 24 c
81
Mailath, count, 65 b Maillotins, 56 a Mail posts in Prussia, 67 c Maimonides of Cordova, 15 b Maine colonised, 37 e; joins the Union, 55 a Mairet, J., 61 c Maistre, le, 67 d, 70 a Maittaire, M., 63 e Maitre Roux, 69 e Majano, Benedetto, 22 b; Giulio da, 57 d
Majesty, title of, first assumed by Charles V., 28 b
Malacca discovered, 26 a; taken by the Dutch, 35 b; Dutch settlements in, 36 a; captured
SI the English, 50 b atesta family, 27 b Malcolm, John, 70 c; of Cumberland, 10 a ; I., of Scotland, 10 b; II., 10 b, 12 b; 111., 12 b; IV., 14 c Maleolus, 22 b Maldachini, Olympia, 35 b Malebranche, Nic., 64 b Malek Umber, 37 c Malik raja Faruki, 23 n Mallebois, general, 42 c, 43 c Mallet, Day., 65 a Malmsbnry, lord, 50 b Malmo, treaty of, 28 e Malone, Edw., 65 a Malplaquet, 42 d Malt-tax causes riots in Scotland, 42 d
Malta given to the knights of Rhodes, 27 d, 29 c; occupied by the French, 50 a ; acquired .by England, 50 b, 54 a, 63 c; occupied by Saracens, 10 e; besieged by the Turks, 31 c, d, 33 c
Maltebrun, 70 c Malvasia, 27 b
Malverhal Nahr, sultan of, 9 e Malvezii,39 g Malwa, 29 f, 33 e, 45 d Malwynawe, Rodri, 6 a Malz ad din, 11 e Mamelukes, 49 a, 54 a, 56 b; defeated near Aleppo, 29 c; rule in Egypt, 17 i; in Syria, 17 m Mammett, 70 b '
Mamun, khalif, 9 e Mao, isle of, annexed to the crown, 46 c
Man, rights of, Paine’s, 46 b,.c Manchester, earl of, 34 a Manchester political meetings, 51 a, 66 a
Mander, Charles van, 69 b Mandeville, sir John, 24 b Manesse, Rudiger v., 24 b Manetti, Gian., 24 b Manfred, 16 h Mangu Khan, 17 n Manhalten founded, 37 e Manilla burnt, 31 b, 33 f; conquered by the English, 46 c; restored to Spain, 46 c Manilla galleon taken by Anson, 42 d, 45 f
Mansart, Franf., 64 e; Jul. II., 64 e
Mansfeldt, count, 32 d, 36 c Mantegna, Andrea, 24 c, 68 c;
Carlo del, 68 c Mantel I, 70 b
Mantua occupied by the A ustrians, 43 f, h; capitulates to the French, 52 c
Mantuan war of succession, 34 b, 36 b, c, d, e, f, g, 58 b Manuel I., Greek emp., 15 d; II., 19 k, 23 i
Manuel excluded from the chamber of deputies, 50 a Manuel, Juan, 24 b Manufactures, Austrian, flourishing period of, 63 c, 67 c; American, 67 c; Danish, 44 d; first in Egypt, 67 c; English, 59 c, 67 a; in France, encouraged by Napoleon, 67 c ; introduced into Poland, 67 c ; in Prussia, 67 c; in Russia, etc., 63 c, 67 c ; Spanish, decline of, 59 c; in Sweden, 36 g, 59 c Manzoni, Aless., 65 b Mar, earl of, 20 c Mar, La, 55 b Marais, theatre du, 67 c Maranon explored, 37 e; Company incorporated, 49 e Marat, 50 a, 67 d Maratta, Carlo, 68 b Marback, league of, 21 h Marburg, protestant university of, 28 b
Marbuse, John, 69 a, d Marcello, 65 d Marcellus II., pope, 31 e Marcels, 18 f, 56 a March, count de la, 16 f March, fields of, 66 a Marchetti, 24 c Marcian, 3 e Marciano, defeat at, 31 c Marco, St, palace of, 57 d Marcomanni, league of, 56 b Marengo, victory of, 52 c Margaret of Anjou, 20 d ; sister of Edgar Atheling, 12 b; of Austria, 27 g; queen of Denmark, etc., 19 c, 22 d ; of England, 26 a, c; queen of Na-
Marguerite de Valais,
Mana, John, 21 1; Philip, 21 1 Maria-Antoinette, q.
XVI., 46 b
d ip, if Louis
Maria, duchess of Burgundy, 21 f, 58 b; Leczinska, q. of Louis XV., 42 c ; Louisa, q. of Na-
poleon, 50 a, 62 e, 72; I., q. of Portugal, 46 a ; da Gloria, q. of Portugal, 51 b, 72; queen of Sicily, 181; queen of Sigis-mund, 19 g
Maria-Theresa, 39 b, c, 43 d, 62 a, b, c, 72
Maria, S., Novella, church of, built, 57 d
Mariana, J., 59 d, e, 60 d Marianburg becomes the capital of Prussia, 19 f; ceded to Poland, 22 f
Marianus Scolus, 13 b Marianwerder, league of, 22 f Marignano, victory of, 26 d, 27 a Marin, pope, 9 a Marine, 57 b, 63 a; school at Rochefort, 63 a
Mariner’s compass improved, 19 b Marino, Giam., 61 b Maritime law of England, 53 e Maritime search, armed neutrality against, 48 d, f Mark ceded to Prussia, 41 c Marlborough, duke of, 42 d, e, 43 a
Marlowe, 59 e, 61 a Marmont, general, 50 a Marmontel, 65 c Marot, CL, 59 e, 61 c Marozia, 10 e Marquez, 55 b Marriage act, royal, 46 c Marriages, early, premiums offered on, 35 b Marriotte, 64 c Marsaglia, 39 c, f Marseilles pillaged by the Normans, 8 e; besieged, 26d,28 b Marshall, 70 c Marshall, Alex., 69 d Marshman, J., 67 e Marsilius, 19 b, 24 a Marston, Jno., 61 a Marston-Moor, 34 a Marsy, Casp., 64 e Martel, Charles, 6 e, d, 7 e, 16 g, 17 h, 56 a Martens, 70 c
Martignac, ministry of, 50 a, 67 d Martin, painter, 69 c; San, 55 b;
V.	Ar., 18 b, 1,20 b Martin I., pope, 5 a; II., 9 a;
III.,	11 a; IV., 16 i; V.,22a Martin, k. of Sicily, 18 1 Martin's, St., church, London, 64 a
Martini, V., 65 d; J. B., 65 d Martinique, 37 e, 89 c Martinique, captured by the English, 46 b, 49 e, 50 b Martinistes, 48 a Martino, Simone di, 24 c, 68 a Martinuzzi, 28 d, 32 d Martyn, anat., 70 b Marvel, And., 61 a Marwar conquered, 33 e Mary, q. of England, 30 c; II., 38 b ; of Guise, 26 b, 30 b ; q. of Scotland, 26 b, 30 b ; of York, 38 b
Maryland granted to lord Baltimore, 37 e Masaccio, 24 c, 68 a Masand, 13 f, 15 f Masaniello, 35 g, 68 a Mascarenha, 31 a Masdeu, 70 c Masi di S., Giovanni, 68 a Maskelyne, Nevil, 70 b Masks, 61 a
Mason, J., 37 e; Wm.,65a Masos, 13 c
Masovia united to Poland, 29 a Mass, canon of, instituted, 3 d Massachusetts bay colonised, 37 e Massena, gen., 50 a, 51 b, 52 c Massenbach, 70 c Masseres, Fr„ 70 b Massinger, Ph„ 59 e, 61 a Massovia a Polish fief, 19 g Masovian line, founder of, 17 f Mastys, Quintin, 69 a Mathematics, 60 c, 64 c, 67 e, 70 b
Mathias, archduke, 32 a, 36 c Mathias, emp. of Germany, 36 c, 73
Matilda, daughter of Henry I., 13 a, 14 d Mattheis, Nic., 65 d Matthews, 65 a; adm., 42 d Matthias Corvin, k. of Hungary, 21 k
Matthisoo, 65 c Maturin, Wm., 65 a Maud, 14 d Maunegato, 6 c Maurepas, ministry of, 46 b Maurice, 67 e Maurice, Gr. emp., 3 e, 5 c Maurice of Nassau, 36 a; of Orange, 32 a, 36 a, 59 a; elctor of Saxony, 28 b, 31 c, 58 b; T., 70 c
Mauritania captured by the Arabs,
Mauritius, conquest of, 60 b, 64 d Mauro, St., 52 e Maurus, Rhabanus, 24 a Maxen, victory of, 47 c Maximilian I., emp., 21 h, 28 b, 29 b, 58 b, 59 a, c, 73; II., emp. of Germ., 32 c Maximus, theologian, 6 b May, Thos., 64 a Mayence, book trade at, 24 d; taken, 36 c; retaken by the Prussians, 50 a Mayenne, duke of, 30 d Mayer, 64 c Mayhew, Thomas, 37 e Mayor of London first titled‘lord’, 18 e
GENERAL INDEX.
Mayors of the palace, 2 c, 4 c, 56 a
Mayronis, Fr., 24 a Mazanderan ceded to Russia, 45 a Mazarine, 34 b, 39 c, 58 a, b Mazarins, 34 b Mazzeppa, revolt of, 45 a Mazzusla, Francesco, 68 c Meal-tub plot, 38 b Mecca, 11 e, 29 c, 54 a Mechanics’ institutions, 50 b, 67 c Mecherino, 68 b Mechlin, 27 g Mecontens, 30 d
Media, a province of the Parthian empire, 3 f Mediation, the act of, 52 b Medical science, 60 c Medicine and astrology, college of, 19 b
Mfidecin, Ecole de, 64 e Medici, 18 i, k, 211,27 c, 58 b Medici, Alexander de, 27 c; Cath. de, 60 a; Cosmo de, 21 1, 31 e, 59 c; Ferdinand de, II., 39 e; Giulio, 21 1; Lorenzo de, 21 1, 27 c; Mary de, 34 b; Pietro de, 21 1, 27 c; Sylvester de, 18 i
Medina, Khalils at, 6 d ; subject to the sultans, 29 c ; taken, 54 a Medina-Celi, duke de, 31 d, 39 b Medina Sidonia, duke of, 31 b Mediterranean, dominion of secured by the English, 50 b Medwall, H., 61 a Meer Ashrat, of Persia, 45 c Meer Mahmood, k. of Persia, 45 c Meersburgh, battle at, 11c Meer-Wei's, k. of the Afghans, 45 c
Mehdi, Mohammed, 7 e Mehemed Ali’s expedition against the sultan Mahmood II., 66 b Mehul, 65 d Meinhard, 21 i Meisnia, Henry of, 16 g Meister-singers, 24 b Melanchthon, 27 e, 31 e, 59 e, 60 b, 61 d
Melbourne, viset., 61 a, 66 a, 67 d
Melchtal, 18 h Melek Shah, 13 f Melilla besieged by the Moors, 47 g
Melissus, Pan!, 61 c Mello, don Francisco de, 35 g Meloria, victory of, 16 f Melozzi, 68 d Melrose founded, 14 c Melville, lord, impeached, 51 a Mending, 24 c
Memmi, Lippo, 24 c, 68 a; Simone, 68 b
Mendicants established at Oxford, 16 e, 17 a
Mendoza, viceroy of N. Spain, 29 g; Hurtado de, 60 d, 61 b Menehould, St., peace of, 34 b Meneses, F. X. de, 65 b Mengs, Raphael, 68 b Menou, general, 54 a Mentz, first archbishop of, 7 b Mentz seized by the French, 62 c; sedition at, 14 f Menzel, k. ad, 70 c Menzel, Wolfg., 65 c, 70 c Menzikoff, prince, ministry of, 45 a
Mercandante, 65 d Merchant Taylor’s school, 69 e Merchant, adventurers, society of, 24 d
Mercia, kingdom of, 2 o, 4 a Mercier, le, 60 e< 65 c Merida, revolts in, 8 c Merimee, 65 c
Merino sheep introduced into Spain, 19 b Merli, faction of, 39 g Merovingians, 2 c, 4 c, 6 d, 56 a Merovius, 2 c Mersch, van der, 47 a Merton, statute of, 67 c Merville, 65 c Merwan I., 5 d; II., 7 e Mery, 65 c
Meshed, defeat at, 49 b Mesmer, Ant., 64 c Mesopotamia added to the Ottoman empire, 29 c; reduced by the Persians, 29 e Messina blockaded, 39 g ; monopolises the silk exports, 39 g Messis, Quinton, 24 c M6sy, M. de, governor of Canada,
Metals, art of transmuting, 19 b Metaphysicians, 70 a Metastasio, Pietro, 65 b Methodists, rise of, 44 b Methodism, rules of, 44 b Methodus, 9 a Methuen treaty, 63 c Metrical romances, 24 b Metternicb, 62 c, 66 a. b Metz, 30 d, 32 c, 34 b Metzu, Gabriel, 69 b Meunier attempts to kill the Louis Philippe, 50 a Mexico acquired by Spain, 59 c; discovered, 29 g, 33 f; invaded, 27 f, 29 g Mexico declares itself independent, 51 c
Mexicans, revolt of, 41 k Meyer, 70 b Meyerbeer, 65 d
Mezarihoff, Russian general, 45 a Mezeray, 64 a
Mezzabarba, legation of, 44 b Miaulis, victories of, 54 a Michael Abaffi II., of Transylvania, 40 g
Michael Coribut Wiecnowicki, of Poland, 41 d
Michael Romanoff, czar, 36 k Michael I., Gr. emp., 9 d ; II.,
9	d; III., 9 d; IV., 13 d; V., 13 d; VI., 13 d; VII., 13 d
Michael, St., chnrch of, at Pavia, 57 d
Michaelis, 63 e Michelozzi, 22 b Mickiewicz, Ad., 65 b Mickle, W. J., 65 a Microscope invented, 64 c Middlesex, earl of, 34 a Middleton Conyers, 63 e Middleton, Jno., 61 a; Richard, 17 a
Miecislas I., of Poland, 10 e, 11 c, e; II., 13 c; 111., 15 c, 17 f
Mieris, Fr. v., 69 b Mignet, 67 e, 70 c Migrations of the German tribes, 3 b, e
Miguel, Don, 50 a, 66 a, 72 Milas, 52 c
Milessimo, victory at, 52 e Milan, 14 f, 26 d, 27 a, 35 f, 43 i, 56 a, 67 e
Milan decree, 50 b ; acquired by Austria, 43 c, f, h; token by the French, 43 i; ceded to France, 52 c; taken by the French and Spaniards, 43 i; sacked by tho Franks, 3 c; a Spanish province, 27 a; invaded by the Swiss, 28 a Militia, American, 67 a Militia Burgher, 59 a Militia in England, 21 h, 34 a, 46 c, 51 a, 57 b; permanent French, 16 f
Military conscription in France, 67 a; government in England, 38 a; revolutions in Spain, Portugal, Ac., 67 a; system,
44	c, 63 a; tactics, new system of, 59 a ; uniforms, 69 a
Mill, James, 70 c Millar, Dr., 70 c Millenarians, lise of, 35 h, 38 b Miller, A., 69 e; John, 70 c Milman, H. H., 65 a, 70 c Mim, 17 n Milton, 59 d, 61 a Mina, 51 c
Minas Geraes’ gold mines discovered, 39 a
Mincio, victory on the, 52 c Minden, defeat of, 46 b, 47 c Mineralogy, 70 b Mines worked in Bohemia and Hungary, 57 c Ming, dynasty of, 37 d Mini, Antonio, 68 a Ministerialists, 66 a Ministers answerable to parliament, 56 a ; first example of impeachment in France, 66 a Ministry, the Cabal, 38 b Minnesingers, 17 a, 24 b Mino, 68 b
Minorca acquired by England, 42 b, d, 46 b, c, 47 g, 50 b Minorca restored to Spain, 46 c Minot, Laurence, 24 b Minsters built, 57 d Minstrels in England, 17 a Minstrels, court of, 19 b Mint, national, in Arabia, 6 d Minto, lord, 54 d Mirabeau, 46 b, 67 d, e Miranda, Saa de, 61 b Miravelt, Mich., 69 b Mirbel, 70 b Mirkond, 22 b, 23 1 Mirza Jani Bek, 33 e Misnia, margravate of, founded,
10	e
Missi dominici created, 8 g Missionary society, native, of N. America, 52 g; English, founded, 52 g
Missionanes to China, Ac., 45 e, 63 e
Missionaries sent to England by pope Gregory, 2 a, 3 d Missions, college for foreign, 20 a Mississippi first descended, 41k; scheme, 42 c; company, Fr.,
45	f; joins the UnioD, 55 a Missolonghi, 54 a Missouri joins the Union, 55 a Mitford, M. R., 65 a Mitford, Wm., 64 d, 70 c Moawiah II., 5 d
Modena, 35 f, 62 e Modena, Barnabo da, 68 c; Setafino dfi Serefiuo da, 68 c; Pelegrino da, 68 c Mogul dynasty, 33 e; empire, 33 e, 37 c, 58 b, 62 b Moguls, great, 29 f Mohabet khan, 37 c Mohammed, 5 d; assumes the character of prophet, 5 d; flight from Mecca, 5 d Mohammed, of Cordova, 12 a Mohammed al Mehdi in Egypt,
11	e
Mohammed I., of Grenada, 16 c;
11.,	16 c
Mohammed I., Ott. emp., 23 k;
11.,	23 k; 111., 33 c, 37 a; IV., 37 a, 41 f
Mohammed, khalif of Persia, 15 f; shah, of Persia, 54 b;
1.,	of Spain, 8 c; Abou-Dahab, 49 a ; Ali, pasha of Egypt, 54 a; Ghori, 23 n; Hussein, 49 b; Hukeem, bro. of Akbar, 33 e; Khan, 19 n; Khan Lodi,29f; Khodabundah, k. of Persia, 33 d ; Kioprili, 41
f; Mehdi, 7 e; Raghib Pasha, ministry of, 49 a; Tooghlek, 23 n
Mohammedanism, progress of, 5 a, d
Mohammedans, divisions among,
9	e ; in India, 23 n Mohs, Fried., 70 b Moine, Fran, le, 69 d Moiz ad din, 23 n Moktedi, khalif, 13 e Mol, Peter van, 69 a Moldavia occupied by Russians,
48 f, 49 a, 53 e, 54 b ; lost to Russia, 45 a Moliere, J. B., 65 c Molinos, 40 a Molisch, 54 a Molitor, 70 a
Moluccas conquered by the Dutch, 35 a, 36 a; captured by the English, 50 b; ceded to Portugal, 26 a
Mollwitz, victory of, 44 c, 43 d,
63	d
Monachisro, 16 k Monarchies, absolute, 62 a Monarchy abolished in England,
34	a
Monasteries become numerous, 5 a, 9 a; suppressed in England, 26 c; dissolution of in Germany, 47 c; dissolved in Portugal, 51b; abolished in Spain, 51 c y restored in Spain, 52 g Monastic vows prohibited in France, 48 a Monboddo, lord, 64 b Monckton, general, 49 f Monpon, treaty of, 36 b Moncontour, 30 d Mondovi, victory at, 52 e Monembasia besieged, 39 d Money, nominal value of raised, 41 b
Mongarten, battle of, 57 b Monge, 67 c, e, 70 b Moogols, 56 b; invade China, 17 n; invade Europe, 17 f, h; power of declines, 19 n Moniteur, the, 67 d, e Monk, gen., 38 b Monks greatly increase, 5 a Monks and clergy, quarrels of,
10	a
Monmouth, rebellion of, 38 b Monomachus, 13 d Monmouth, Jeffrey of, 24 b Monnier, le, 64 c Monro, 70 b Monroe, president, 55 a Monsen Puelle, victory‘of, 18 f Monsignori, Francesco, 68 c;
Girolamo, 68 c Monsigny, P. A., 65 d Monstrelet, 22 b Montague, Basil, 66 c, 70 b Montaigne, Mich, de, 59 e, 60 b Monlalbert’s system of fortification, 63 a
Mont-Cassel, 39 c, 40 b Monteagleja, 67 d Monlecuculi, 40 g Montemayor, Jorge de, 61 b Moute-Murlo, 27 c Monte Notte, victory at, 52 e Montesquieu, 46 b, 62 c, 63 d, e,
64	d
Monteverde, Cl. de, 60 f
Montezuma, 29 g
Montferrat succession, wars of,
35	a
Montfort, Simon de, 16 e, f Montgolfier’s air-balloon, 64 a Montgomery, general, 49 f; Jas.,
65	a
Montholon, 70 c Monthly chronicle, 67 d Monti, Vine., 65 b Montlhery, battle of, 20 e MoDtlieu, Blaise de, 60 d Montpelier, treaty of, 34 b Montreal captured by the English, 46 b; riots at, 55 c Montrose, marquis, 34 a, 38 b Montserrat settled, 37 e Montserrat, marquis, 17 i Muoltanconq. by the Moguls, 33 e Moore, sir John, 61 b; sir T., 59 d; Th., 65 a ; Jno., 65 a Moors in North Africa, 26 a; oppressed, 27 f; expelled from Spain, 35 b
Morales, Luis, 60 d, 69 c Moralities, or moral plays, 61 a Morastein, assembly at, 19 e Morat, defeat at, 20 e, 21 f, g Moratin, Nic. Fern, de, 65 b Moratin, Leand. Fern., 65 b Moravians, 16 i, 31 e, 44 b Moray, 30 b Morazan, 55 b More, H., 64 b; Thos., 59 e Morea, revolt of, 49 a, 54 a Morea, expedition of the French to the, 50 b; conquered by the Turks, 23 i, 43 f, 45 b; given up to Venice, 39 d, 41 f Moreau, general, 50 a, 62 c Moreland, George, 69 c Morene, Francesco, 24 c Moreto, Aug., 61 b Morgan, laay, 65 a Morgan, buccaneer, 41 k Morgarten, battle of, 18 h, 59 a Morgen, 68 b Mori, 65 d Moriale, Fra., 57 b Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresia, 43 d Morier, 65 a Morillo, 55 b
Moriscos, rebellion of the, 31 b Morley, Thos., 60 f Morosini, 39 d
Morpeth, lord, 67 d Mortimer, conspiracy of, 18 e Mortimer, earl, 20 d; John, 69 c;
marshal, 50 a Morton, 30 b Morveau, Guyton de, 70 b Mosaic painting revives in Ttaly, 13 b
Mosca, 65 d Moschclles, 65 d Moschopulus, Eman., 22 b Moscow founded, 15 c; burnt, 17 f, 33 b, 53 e; garrisoned by the Poles, 36 i; besieged by the Tartars, 29 b Moser, Just., 63 d, 64 d Moslems baptized, 27 f Mosque founded at Jerusalem, 5c Moss, convention, 53 a Most Faithful Majesty, title of assumed, 42 a
Mosul conquered by Turkey, 37 a Motadhed Billah, khalif, 9 e Motaki, khalif, 11 e Motassem, khalif, 9 e Motawakel, khalif, 9 e Mothe, Franf de la, 64 b, 65 c Moultan, 29 f, 49 c, 54 c Mountain, party of the, 50 a Mountjoy, lord, 30 c Mourad Bey, revolt of, 49 a Mouton, J., 24 c,
Mowbray, Roger de, 12 b Mozambique settled, 26 c Mozart, 65 d Muattemed, khalif, 9 e Muattez, khalif, 9 e Mubarik, 23 n Mubarikabad, built, 23 n Mufti head of the spiritual power, 19 1; deposes the sultan, 37 a Muhlburg, battle of, 28 b Muktader, khalif, II e Muktefi, khalif, 11 e Mulgrave, lord, 51 a Miilhaussen, 28 a, 39 c, 40 e Muller, 65 d
Muller, Ad., 67 d; A., 65 c Muller, J. G. von, 65 c, 69 a; F. von, 65 c, 69 a
Mulwa, kingdom of, founded, 23 n Muniments burnt al Moscow, 41 e Munich taken, 36 e, 62 c Miinnich, ministry of, 45 a Munster, negotiations at, 36 e Munster, compact for the secularisation of, 53 c Muntesser, khalif, 9 e Miinzer, Thomas, 28 b, 58 a Municipal corporations reform bill, 51 a
Municipal system, Roman, overthrown, 56 a
Municipal regulations in Prussia, 67 c
Municipalities in France, 56 a, 62 d, 63 c, 66 a
Murad I., Ottoman emp., 19 1, 57 b; II., 23 k; 111., 33 c; IV.. 37 a
Murad Bey, 49 c; Buksh, 37 c Murat, Achilles, 67 d; grand-duke of Cleves, 52 c; king of Naples, 50 e, 52 f Muratori, 64 d Murchison, 70 b Murdoch, 20 c Murhard, 67 d Murillo, 69 c Muris, John de, 24 c Murphy, Arthur, 65 a, 70 c Murray, sir G., 51 a, 67 d Musa, 6 c Musa al Hadi, 7 e Musa khan, 19 n Muscat, 26 a Musee, Napoleon, 67 e Museo Borbonico, 64 e; Capi-tolino, 64 e; Pio-L'lementiano,
64	e
Museum, British, 46 b, 63 e Museums founded, 64 e Music, 24 c, 60 f, 63 e, 65 d, Music, roy. acad. of, 65 d Music, Flemish school of, 60 f Musical notation invented, 24 c; notes printed, 24 c; scale invented, 13 b; time, founder of, 24 c
Musicians, English, 60 f, 65 d; French, 65 d ; German, 60 f,
65	d; Italian, 60 f, 65 d; Spanish, 65 d; Venetian, 65 d
Musiq., Acad, de, 63 e Muskets, brought into use, 37 b, 59 a
Muskiroan, 19 n Mustagin, khalif, 9 e Mustali, khalif, 13 b, e Mustanjed, 15 f Mustansar, 17 m Mustanzi, 15 f Mustapha Kiuprili, 40 g Mustapha I., sultan, 37 a; IT., 41 t, 45 b; III., 49 a; IV., 54 a
Mustosem, 17 m Muteia, khalif, 11 e Mustekfi, khalif, 11 e, 15 f Mustershid, 15 f Muzeffer Shah, 23 n, 33 e Mysore, kingdom of, 49 c, 54 d Mystery, first in Italy, 24 b ; in England, France, Ac., 24 b Mystical naturalists, 64 b Mysticism, 19 b, 22 b, 24 a, 52 g
Mystics, 24 a, 40 a, 64 b, 70 a Mytilene conquered by the l urks, 23 i
Nadir Shah, of Persia, 45 c, 62b
Naiton, 6 b
sa
Nakitlschiwan ceded to Russia.
53	e
Namur, 27 g
Nancy, defeat at, 20 e, 21 f, g Nangis, Gulielmus de, 19 b Nani, 64 d Nanini, 60 f
Nantes, diet of, 30 d, 34.b, 39 c, 40 a, 63 c
Napier, admiral, 61 b ; John, 60 c; lord, 54 e
Naples, 3 c, 16 g, 18 b, k, 21 m, 27 d, 35 g, 39 g, 44 a, 47 f, 52 f, 58 a, 66 a, b, c Naples a province of Aragon, 21 m ; acquired by Austria, 42 c,
43	h; conquered by Don Carlos,
44	a; conquered by the French,
20	e, 27 f, 50 b ; occupied by the Imperialists, 44 a; Napoleon’s kingdom of, 66 a ; occupied by Russians, 53 e; ceded to Spain, 26 d; invaded by the Turks, 28 c
Naples Anjou, house of, 19 h Naples and Sicily, 44 a, 52 f Napoleon Buonaparte, 50 a, 62 a,
66	a, b, c, d, 70 c, 72 Napoleon code, 66 c; first consul, 66 a; concordat of, with the pope, 50 a; emperor, 66 a; ItaJ. campaigns of, 67 a ; acknowledged as king of Italy, 52 c; overthrow of, 66 b; king of Rome, 66 a
Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt,
67	a ; family, kingdom erected for, 66 b; Russian expedition, 66 b, 67 a
Napoli, 27 b, 64 a Napper Tandy, 50 b Narbonne wrested from the Arabs, 6 d; taken by the Arabs, 6 c; conquered by the Franks, 2 b Nardo, Bernardo, 21 1 Narses settles the affairs of Italy, 3 e; overthrows the Gothic monarchy, 3 c
Narva taken by the Russians, 45 a; battle of, 63 a Naseby, battle of, 34 a Nash, Tbos., 61 a Nasir ad din, 15 f, 23 n Nassau, Adolphus of, 16 g Nassau-Diez, prince of, 43 a Nassir-allah, 49 b Nathan ben Jachiel, 15 b National assembly, French, 46 b, 50a
National convention of France, decree to assist all nations to establish liberty, 62 b National debts, 58 d, 62 d, 66 d National debt in England, 38 b, 42 d, 62 d, 66 d
National debt, first, of France, 26 d
National debt of the United States, 49 f
National guard in France, 62 a,
66	a, 67 a
Natalia conquered by the Turks, 191
Natterer, 70 b
Naturalists, physicians, fire., 60 c, 64 c, 70 b
Natural sciences, 19 b, 22 b, 59 e,
67	e, 70 b Nauman, 65 d
Nautical almanacs, institutor of, 70 b
Naval laws, code of, published, 48 b
Navarete, battle of, 18 c Navarete, Juan Fernandez, 69 c Navarino, battle of, 60 b, 53 e,
54	a
Navarre, kingdom of, 8 d, 12 a, 14 b, 18 b, 27 f, 51 c Navas de Tolosa, battle of, 16 b Navigation act, 38 b, 62 d, 66d; under Cromwell, 63 c; in America, 67 c
Navy, Dutch, formation of, 59 a; of England, 8 a, 18 e, 59 a ; French, formation of, 59 -a; Russian, rise of, 63 a; Turkish, 59 a
Nawabs independent, 45 d Neate, 65 d
Necker, comptroller-general, 46 b, 62 a, d
Nectan, 6 b f Neer, Ar. van der, 69 b Neerwinden, 39 c,,40 b, 50 a Negapataro ceded to England, 46 c; taken by the English, 47 a Negatifs and Representans, disturbances between, 47 b Negoro, Diepo, 52 a Negro slaves first imported, 29 g, 37 e, 59 c
Negroes declared free, 55 c; code for the protection of, 41 k ‘ Neill, Miss O’, 65 a Nekodar, 17 m
Nelson, admiral, 50 b, 53 a, 67 a Nemours, edict of, 30 d Nemours, due de, 26 d ; duchess de, 44 c
Neoplatonic system founded, 22 b,
Nepotism introduced, 16 i Neri, St Philip, 31 e Netherlands, 27 g, 32 a, 36 a. 52 a, 68 b, 62 b, 66 a Netherlands united to Austria,
21	h; conquered by the French, 60 a; separated from Spain,
68	a
Netscher, Casp., 69 b Neufchatel, canton, 52 b; acquired by Prussia, 43 b, 44 c Neuhaussel taken by the Turks, 40 g
Neukomm, 65 d Neustria, 2 c, 6 d Neutrality, armed, 48 c, f, 50 b, 63 a
Neve, passage of, 51 c Neville's Cross, battle of, 18 d Nevis settled, 37 e New Albion discovered, 33 f Newbottle founded, 14 c Newbury, battle of, 34 a Newcastle, first discovery of coal at, 16 e
Newcastle, dnke of, ministry of, 46 d
Newcastle, fortress of, built, 12 c New Coll., Oxford, 64 e Newfoundland discovered, 24 d; fisheries, 37 e; ceded to England, 42 d, 45 f Newgate, 64 e
New Granada conquered, 29 g New Netherlands conquered by the English, 41 k New Orleans, battle of, 65 a Newski, Alex., 17 h Newspaper, first Egyptian, 54 a ; first Russian, 63 e ; first Turkish, 54 a, 67 e; stamps, 51 a; 62 d
Newspapers, English, 30 c, 69 e, 67 a; influence of, 67 e Newton, sir 1., 63 e, 64 c New York, 37 e, 38 b, 65 a, 67 c Ney, marshal, 50 a Niagara captured by the English, 49 f
Nice, congress of, 27 f, 28 b; siege of, 13 b, 17 1, 27 a, d ; occupied by the French, 50 a, 52 e; conquered by the Ottomans, 19 1
Nicephoros I., 9 d ; II., of Gr.
empire, lid; III., Gr., 13 d Nicephoros, conspiracy of, 7 d Nicephoros, Gregoras, 19 b Nicetas Acominatus, 15 b Nichol, Dr., 67 e Nicholas I., emp. of Rus., 53 e, 73 Nicholas I., pope, 9 a ; II., 13 a; III., 16 i; IV., 16 i; V., 19 a, 22 a
Nicholas, sir Harris, 70 c Nicholson, Wm., 64 d Nicole, 64 b Nicolini, 65 b
Nicomedia conquered by the Ottomans, 19 1
Nicopolis, defeat at, 19 h Nicot, 60 a Niebuhr, 67 e, 70 c Niebuhr’s travels in Arabia, 64 a Niels, k. of Denmark, 15 c Nieracewicz, Urs., 65 b, 70 c Niemen, conferences of the, 53 e Nigetti, 60 e
Nile, battle of, 50 b ; expedition to explore tbe, 46 c, 70 c Nimeguen, 38 b, 39 b, c, 40 b, e Ninche, Tartars, 17 n Nineveh, victory of, 5 e Nismes, pacification of, 34 b Nissa, victory at, 21 k Nitard, 39 b
Nizam-Jedid organised, 64 a Nizam Shah, 33 e Nizam-al-Mulk independent in India, 45 d
Noailles, cardinal de, 44 b Nobility formed, 56 a; under Charlemagne and his successors, 8 e; in Denmark, 62 a; English,60a,62d ; inFrance, 16 f, 17 a, 50 a, 66 a, 58 a, 62 a, d, 63 b; German, 18 g, 62 d, 66 d ; in Norway, 28 e, 53 b, 58 a, 66 a
Nobility and burghers in Russia, 66 a
Nobles and bishops, massacre of Swedish, 28 f, 58 a '
Nodier, Ch., 65 c Nola, revolution at, 52 f Nollekins, Jos., 64 e Nominalism first appears, 24 a Non-Intercourse act, 55 a Non-jurors, 38 b, 44 b Non-resistance, disputes on, 38 b Noor-Mabal, sultana, 37 c Noor-Othmani, mosque of, 49 a Noot, van der, 47 a Nordkoping, diet of, 36 g Nordlingen, 36 g Nore, mutiny at, 50 b Norfolk, conspiracy of the earl of, 30b
Noricum subjugated, 3 c Normanby, marquis, 67 d Normandy overrun, 20 d Norman sea-kings ravage every coast of Europe, 9 c Normans invade England, 12 c ; first descent of, upon France, 8 e ; settle in south Italy, 12e; embrace Christianity, 11a Normandy, dukes of, 10 d Norman kings of England, 12 c, 14 d, 71
Noronna, 31 a, 65 b Norris, 31 a
North, convention of the, 53 a North, lord, 46 c, d, 51 a; sirT., 60 d
Northampton, defeat at, 20 d Northcote, James, 69 c Northern seas, map of the, constructed, 19 b
Northmen invade England, 8 a North pole, voyage to, 70 c Northumberland yielded up to Henry II., 14 c
Northumberland, rebellion of tbe earl of, 30 c; duke of, his rental, 63b
Northumbria, kingdom of,2 a, 4 a, 10 a
GENERAL INDEX.
North-west passage, 26 c, 50 b Norton, Thos., 61 a Norvius, 70 c
Norway, 7 c, 9 c, 11 c, 13 c, 15 c, 17 c, 19 d, 22 d, 28 e,32e; aristocracy suppressed in, 58 a; conquered by the Danes, 13 c; invaded by the Swedes, 44 d; ceded to Sweden, 53 a, b; constitution of, 66 a
Norwich, woollen manufacture at, 15 b
Nostradamus, 60 a Notables, assembly of, 46 b •Notre-dame built, 57 d Nottingham ravaged by the Danes, 8 a
Nottingham, earl of, 42 e Noushirvan, 3 f
Nova Colonia captured by the Spaniards, 46 a, 47 g Novalis, 65 c, 70 a Novara, defeat of, 26 d, 27 a, 28 a; ceded to Savoy, 43 i Nova Scotia conquered by the English, 49 f; dispute on the boundaries of, 46 c, 49 f Novelists, English, 65 a; French, 65 c ; German, 65 c Novello, Clare, 65 d Novels, modern, 65 e Novera, Dom. Maria, 22 b Novgorod, Hanseatic settlement at, 17 h; sacked, 17 h; independent, 19 i; captured, 22 h ; inhabitants massacred, 33 b; places itself under Sweden, 36 g.i
Novi, victory of, 52 c Noyon, treaty of, 26 d, 27 f Nubia conquered, 54 a Nuds-pieds, expedition of, 34 b Nullifiers, 55 a
Nuncios, first that visit France, 6 d
Nuraddin, 15 e
Nuremberg, first burgrave of, 73; burgher army of, 67 b; minster built, 57 d; merchants, liberties of, 18 h Nushero, defeat of, 54 c Nympheoburg, 43 c Nyssa, victory at, 22 g, 23 k Nystadt, peace of, 44 e, 45 a, 62b
Obeooso, 55 b Obeid Khan Usbek, 29 e Obelisks re-erected in Rome, 31 e
Oberkampe, 63 c Oberleitner, 67 e Obrecht, Jac., 24 c Ocampo, 60 d Occam, William, 19 b, 24 a Occhiali, 33 c
Ochterlony, victories of, 54 d Ockhenheim, Joh., 24 c Ockley, Simon, 63 e Octa, 2 a Octai, 57 b
Oczakow taken by the Russians,
45	a, 48 f
Odenburg, house of, 22 c
---------diet of, 40 g
Odericus Vitalis, 15 b Odescalchi, pope, 40 a Odessa founded, 48 f, 62 b, 63 c Odo, archbp. of Canterbury, 10 a,
11	a
Odoacer sacks Rome, 3 c (Ecolampadius, 27 e, 28 a Oehlenschlaeger, 65 b Oeland conquered, 19 c Oersted, 70 b
CEsel annexed to Denmark, 17 b Oesel, islands of, ceded to Russia,
46	a
Oesser, 69 a
Ofen, parliament of, 21 k Offa, 6 a
Ofterdingen, Heinrich v., 24 b
Ogla, 11 a, c
Ohio, defeat on the, 46 c
----joins the Union, 55 a
Ojeda, 29 g Oken, 70 a, b
Olaf king of Denmark, 19 c; IV., 13 c; I., of Norway, 10 a; II., of Norway, 13 c; III., 13 c Olacb, 41 f Olaus Petri, 27 e, 28 f Olbers, 70 b Oldcastle, sir John, 20 d Oldenburg and Delmenhorst exchanged for Holstein, 48 c Oldys, Wm., 64 d Oleg, czar of Russia, 9 c, 11 c Oliva, 41 b
Olivarez, count-duke, 35 a Oliver, Peter, 69 d; Isaac, 69 d;
the spy, 50 b Olivia, peace of, 62 b Olivus, Peter John, 19 b Olnitz, 36 c Olympius, 4 d
Omar I., khalif, 5 d; II., 7 e Omar, rebellion of, 8 c
----Mohammedan general, 6 c
Omer, St., reduced by the French, 40b
Ommiyadedynasty, 5 d, 6 c, 7 e,
12	a
Onate, count de, 36 g Oneglia, 31 c
O’Neill, ear) of Tyrone, 30 c Onod, diet of, 43 e Opdam, adm., 40 b Operas, French, 65 d; Italian, 65 d
Opie, John, 69 c; Mrs., 65 a Opitz, Mart., 61 c Oporto, revolution at, 51 b; taken I by Soult, 51 b
Oppelen, duchy of, ceded to Hungary, 36 e
Opslo, battle of, 68 a Optics, foundation of the science, 60c
Oran, 27 f, 47 g Orange, house of. 42 d
--------parties, rise of, in Holland,
47 a
-------• prince of, 38 b; elected
provincial stadtholder, 43 a
-------- lodges, debate on, 51 a
--------principality of,claimed by
Prussia, 44 c Oratorios, 60 f, 65 d Oratory, 63 d Orde, 70 b
Ordeals go out of use, 19 b Order of St Esprit, 30 d
--------St. Stephen, 31 c
-----of the Thistle, 26 b
Ordnance companies, 59 a, 63 a Ordonoances of Charles X.,50 a Ordono I., king of Leon, 8 d; II., 10 c; III., 10 c
Orebro, diet of, 28 f; peace of, 53b
Orellana, 29 g Organs brougnt into use, 7 a, b,
Organists, English, 65 d; German, 65 d Oribe, 55 b Orida, 2 a
Orient, L., victory of, 50 b Orientalists, 63 e, 67 e Orissa ceded to the E. I. Company, 49 c Orlhan, 19 1 Orkney islands acquired by Scotland, 20 c
Orleans, house of, 72 ; first council of, 2c; duke of, (uncle to Louis XV.,) regent, 41 c, 42 c; duke de, Egalile, 46 b, 50 a; the maid of, 20 d Orley, Bernard van, 69 a Orloff, Gregory, ministry of, 48 f, 49 a
Ormonde, duke of, 42 d Ormuz, 26 a, 35 a Ornano, count of, 31 c Ornithologists, 70 b Oropesa, Conde de, 39 b Orsini, pope Benedict XIII., 44 b
■------- princess, 42 b
Ort, Albert van, 69 a Orthogrul, 17 1 Ortiz, 33 f Ortok, sons of, 13 e Osman II., sultan, 37 a
--------pasha, 33 c
Osman-Paswan-Ogli, revolt of, 49 a
Oasuna, duke of, 35 e, g Ostade, Isaac van, 69 b Ostend, siege of, 36 a, 59 a;
Company, 42 d, 43 a Ostermann, ministry of, 45 a Ostrach, victory of, 52 c Ostrogoths. 2 b, 3 c; joined by tbe Bulgarians, etc., 3 e ; take Rome, 3 c; overthrown in Italy, 3 e
Oswald, 4 a ; Jas., 64 b Oswy, 4 a
Otford, victory at, 6 a Othlo, 24 a
Othman, khalif, 5 d; I., Ott.
emp., 171; III., 49 a Otho I., emp., 10 d, e, 56 a, 73; II., 10 e, 73; III,, 10 e, 73; IV., 16 g, 73 ; king of Greece, 54 a; bishop of Friesengen, 15 b
Otranto destroyed, 21 m Ottacar 11., king of Bohemia, 16 g Otterbourne, battle of, 18 d Otto, 70 c ; V., of Hungary and Bavaria, 19 h Ottoboni, pope, 40 a Ottoman empire, 17 1,19 1, 23 i, 29 c, 33 c, 37 a, 41 f, 45 b, 49 a, 54 a
Moniteur, 67 e
Otway, Thos., 65 a Oudenarde, 42 d Ouverture, L’, Touissant, 55 c Ougtai Khan, 17 n Ouriques, battle of, 14 b Overbecke, Fr„ 69 a Overyssel, 27 g
Oviedo built, 6 c; kings at, 6 c Owen, Jno., 61 a, 63 e; Dr., 70 b; Will., 69 c Oxe, Peter, 32 e Oxenstiern, ministry of, 36 g Oxford, Harley, earl of, 42 a, e university of, founded, 9 b famous parliament at, 16e Oxfordshire militia, mutiny of, 51 a
c, 68 a; French, 69 e; German, 24 c, 69 e, 69 a; lombard, 24 c; Mantuan, 68 c; Milauese, 24 c, 68 d; Modenese, 68 c ; Neapolitan, 68 b; Parmesan, 68 c; Roman, 68 b Painting and sculpture, French academy of, 63 e Paisiello, 65 d Paix perpetuelle, 26 d, 28 a
-----petite, 30 d
Pakenham, sir Edw., 65 a Palais Royal, 60 e Palatinate devastated. 39 c Palatine abolished, 40 g Palatins, 9 c Palazzo Vecchio, 57 d Palsolagus, And., 19 k; John, Gr. emp., 19 k; Michael, 171 Palermo taken by the Saracens, 9 e; made capital of Sicily, 27 d Palestine invaded by the Persians, 5 e; subdued by the Turb, 13 f
Palestrina, 69 e, 60 f Paley, William, 70 a Palfi, count, 43 d Palgrave, sir Fras., 70 c Palimban, sultan of, subdued, 52 a
Palladio, 59 e, 60 e, 64 e Palladius, 6 b Pallas, the planet, discovered, 70 b
-----■ Perth, emp., 3 f
Pallenus, Robert, 15 b Palma, Jacopo, 68 r Palmella, ministry of, 51 b Palmerston, lord, 51 a Palm tree, first in Spain, 6 c Panama founded, 29 g; sacked by the buccaneers, 41 h Pandects, copy of, discovered, 15 b, 56 c
Panic, commercial, in London, 50 b, 67 c
Panicale, Masolini di, 68 a Panin, ministry of, 48 f Paniput, 29 f, 49 c Pannonia vacated by the Lombards, 3 b
Panoramas in London, 64 a Panormita, Ant. Beccadella, 22 b "Pantheon, Paris, 64 e Pantormo, 68 a Panzini, 34 a Paoli, 43 f, 47 e
Papacy assumes a warlike character, 27 c
Papal bull burnt by Luther, 28 b; decree,king of Franee dethroned by, 7 a
-----power declines, 19 a
-----Slates, 27 c, 52 g
Papas Oghli, 49 a Paper, art of making, 7 b, 19 b, 22 b
Pairer money, in China, 24 d ; depreciated in France, 42 c; abuse of, in Germany, 47 c Papineau, 55 c Pappenheim, 36 h, 59 a Paracelsus, Theopb., 60 b, e Paraguay, 33 f, 49 e Parapinaces, 13 d Parc aux serfs, etc., 46 b, 64 a Pardo, 42 b, d
Paris, 2 c, 18 f, 30 d, 34 b, 42 e, 60 a, 56 a, 62 a; entered by the allies, 60a; council of, 19a; threatened by the Imperialists, 34 b; congress of the Jewish nation at, 52 g; besieged by the Normans, 8 e, f; Russian troops in, 53 e; parliament of, 34 b, 46 b, 56 c, 62 a ; peace of, 52 e, 55 e, 62 b; treaty of, 66b
Parisian national guards dissolved,
—■ — sections, war of the, 60 a Paris, Abb£, 44 b; Matthew, 17 a Parker, 70 b
Parliament, houses of, burnt, 60 b; right of petitioning, firmly established, 46 d; privileges of, disputes respecting, 46 d ; first regular, 16e, 56 a; firstspeaker of, 56 a ; divided into two houses, 56 a; ministers answer-able to, 56 a; first united, of Great Britain, 42 d; of Wir-tenburgh, 17 b
Parliamentary reform, rise of, 46 d Parliaments septennial in France, 60a
triennial, 38 a
Parma, 27 c, 31 c, 35 f, 62 e; ceded to Austria, 43 i, 44 a ; ceded to France, 50 a; taken by tbe French and Spaniards, 43 i; ceded to Don Philip, 42 d. 43 d
Pacchiabotto, Jacopo, 68 b Pachymeres, Georgius, 17 a Pacification, diet of, 44 f Pacini, 65 d
Pacta Conventa, 33 a, 36 i, 58 a Padilla, 27 f
Padua ceded to Venice, 21 1 Paez, 55 b, 65 d Paflas, 70 b Paganini, 65 d
Paganism abolished in the north of Europe, 11 c
Pagans, tbe last European, 19 g Pahlin, 67 e
Paine, T., 46 c, 63 d, 67 d Pains and Penalties, bill of, 50 b Painting, 13 b, 24 c, 59 e, 68,69; distemper, revives in Italy, 13 b; oil, inventor of, 24 c, 69 a; Cremonese school, 68 c; Dutch, 69 b; English, 69 d; Flemish, 69 a; Florentine, 24
Parma and Placentia, duchy of, 27 c
Parma, duchess of, 32 a; prince of. 30 d. 32 a Parmegiano, il, 68 e Parnel, sir H., 51 a Parnel, Thos., 65 a Parr, Dr. Sam., 67 e Parrocel, 69 d Parry, capt., 70 c Parthenon, the, injured, 39 d Parthenopeian republic, 52 f Partbia, wars of, with the White Huns, 3 f
Partida published, 18 c Paruta, Paol., 60 d Passarowitz, peace of, 45 b Pascal, Bl., 64 b Paschal I„ pope, 9 a; II., 13 a, 15 a; III., 15a
Pashas, African, supplanted, 37 a Paskewitch, 53 e, 54 a
Passau, treaty of, 31 e, 32 c, 58 b • ceded to Bavaria, 52 c ’ Passerotti, Bartolommeo, 68 d Passive obedience, disputes on,
raicn, iv 0
Patkul outlawed, 41 b; given up to Charles XII., 44 e Patriarchate of Lisbon, 42 a Patriarch of Moscow, 33 b Patriarchate, Russian, abolished, 45 a
Patriarchal period, 56 a, c
------------system, 56 a
Patricius, 59 e Patrizzi, Franc., 60 b Paul, exarch, 6 e; I., pope, 7 a ;
II.,	22 a; III., 27 e, 58 d ; IV., 31 e; V., 35 h; emp. of Russia, 53 e, 73
----rebellion of, 4 b
Paul’s, St., cathedral, 64 e; church, Covent Garden, 60 e; school, 61 d Paulet, 58 d Pauline Borgbese, 60 a Paulupius Aoabestus, 6 e Pavia, burnt, 10 e, 12 e; battle of, 26 d, 27 f, 67 d Paxo, 62 e Pazzi, 21 1
Peace of Aix -la-Cbapelle, 39 b, c,
40	c, 42 b, d, 43 a ; Amiens, '50 a ; Blois, 26 d, 27 f • Bromsebro, 36 f, g; Cardis’
41	e; Crespy, 26 d, 27 f, 28 b; Florence, 50 a; Hamburg, 48 d; Kutcbuk-Kainardji, 48 f, 49 a; Lubeck, 36 c, f; Luneville, 50 a; Menebould, 34 b; Paris, 46 b, c, 47 g, 49 e,50a,52e; Passarowitz, 43 e, f; Peters-burgh, 50 b, 53 a; Prague, 36 c, g; Presburg, 50 a ; Pyrenees, 39 b, c, e, f, 40 c • Rastadt, 42 b, 43 c, h; Roe! kiltie, 41 a; Szistova, 47 d, 49 a ; Teschen, 47 c, 48 b, f; Tilsit, 50 a ; Utrecht, 42 b, d, 43 a, c; Vervins, 30 d, 31 b; Vienna, 43 c, 60 a; Zurawno, 41 d
Peace, justices of, instituted, 66 c Peasantry, 19 b, 37 c, 66 a, 57 c, 58 a, 63 b; revolt of Bohemian, 40 f, 63 b; insurrections of German, 28 b, 59 b ; insurrection of, in Hungary, 28 d, 59 b; Russian, 58 a, 59 b; insurrection of Swiss, 63 b Peckham, John, 17 a Peck water, Oxford, 64 e Pedro II., of Aragon, 14 b, 16 b; HI., 16 b; I., emp.-of Brazil, 55 b; II., 55 b; I., of Navarre, 12 a ; II., of Portugal, 39 a, 42 a
Pedro, Don, 50 a, 51 b, 66 a, 72 Peel, sir R., 51 a,66a,c, d,67d.e Peele, Geo., 61 a Peels, 57 d
Peers of France, 10 d, 66 a Pegu discovered, 26 a Pashwahs supplant the rajahs,
Peishwah, deposed, 54 d Pekin, earthquake at, 45 e; built,
Pelagius I., 3 d; II., 3 d Pelayo, 6 c Pelham, 42 e, 46 d Pellegrino, 68 d Pellew, adm., 60 b Pellico, Silvio, 65 b Pembroke, William, earl of, 16 e Pembroke, earl of, 64 e Penal laws, 30 c, 68 a Penda, 2 a, 4 a Peodulum discovered, 60 c Penenden heath meeting, 51 a Penn, adm., 38 b; William, 41 k, 62 c
Pennafert, Raymond de, 17 a Pennaforte, 56 c Penni, 68 b Penny Magazine, 67 e
-----Poet, 64 a
Penryn Bill, 51 a Penshurst, 60 e Pennsylvania planted, 41 k Pepe, Morelli, 52 f Pepin d’Heristal, 4 c, 6 d
-----the Short, 6 d
.Pepoli, Aless., 65 b Peru ceded to Genoa, 17 1 Percival, ministry of, 61 a, 67 d Percy, bp., 65 a; earl, 20 c, d Pere la Chaise, 39 c Peretti, pope Sixtus V., 31 e Perez, Ant., 31 b, 60 d Pergolesi, G. B., 65 d Peri, Jac., 60 f
Periodical literature, great influence of, 67 e Peripatetics, 15 b, 60 b Pernambuco Company incorporated, 49 e Perottus, Nic., 24 b Perrault, Ch., 64 e, 65 c Perrier, Cas., 66 a, b, 67 d Perry, capt., 55 a Persarmenia submits to the Greeks, 3 f
Persia, 5 e, 29 e, 33 d, 37 b, 41 g, 45 c, 4JF b, 54 b; subdued by the Arabs, 5 e; war of, with tne Greek eiftpire, 3 e, 5 c; invaded by Heraclius, 5 e ; conquered by Ismail Samani, He; subject to the Mongols, 17 m; war of, with the Porte, 33 c, 45 b; invaded by the Tartars, 19m; conquered by the Turks, 13 f; khans of, 17 m, 19 n;
GENERAL INDEX,
83
. reached by English merchants, 30 c
Persian language revives, 11 e Pertharis, 4 d
Peru, 27 f, 29 g, 49 e, 51 c,55b, , 69 c
Peragino, Pet., 24 c, 68 b Peruzzi, Baldassare, 60 e, 68 b Pescara, 59 a Pestalozzi, 65 c, 67 d, e Pestel executed, 53 e Pesth, diet of, 28 d; yearly parliament at, 21 k
Peter IV., of Aragon, 18 b; I., emp. of Brazil, 56 b; king of Hungary, 13 c; Latin emp.,
17	k; the Cruel, of Leon and Castile, 18 c; I., of Portugal,
18	a ; II., 72 ; the Great, of Russia, 41 e, 45 a, -62 a, b, c, 63 a, c, 73; II., 45 a, 73;
111.,	48 f, 73; I., of Sicily, 16 h; II., 18 1
Peter-Leopold, g. d. of Tuscany, 47 e
Peter’s, St., patrimony, given to the popes, 7 a
Peter’s, St., sepulchre, keys of, 6 d
Peter-pence, 4 a, 6 a, 12 c Peter de Blois, 15 b; the Hermit, 13 b ; of Duisberg, 19 b; the Lombard, 15 b Peterborough, earl of, 42 b Peters, Bon., 69 a Petersburgh founded, 45 a Peteraburgh attempted by the Swedes, 48 d
Peterwardein, battle of, 45 b Petion, 55 c Petilot, S., 69 d Petition of rights, 34 a Petra, siege of, 3 f Petrarch, 18 i, 19 b, 24 b Petrikau, high court of, 33 a; diet of, 22 g; first diet of country deputies at, 22 g; first meeting at, 58 a Petronella, 14 b Petty, lord, 61a Petyt, Th., 60 d Peyrouse, la, 61 c Pfaff, 44 b
Pfiozting, Melch., 61 c Phanzes, George, 22 b Pharamond supposed to have led the Franks across the Rhine, 2 c Phelyppes, sir Thus., 60 f Philadelphia founded, 41 k; congress at, 49 f Pbilelphus, Fran., 24 b Philes, Manuel, 19 b Philagian marbles, 64 e Philharmonic society, 65 d Philbellene, 54 a Philibert, Emmanuel, 31 c Philip of Anjou, 39 c; d. of Burgundy, 21 f; k. of Castile, 27 f Philip I., Fr., 12 d, 14 e, 72;
11.,	14 e, 57 b, 72; 111., 16 f, 56 a, 72 ; IV., 18 f, 72 ; V.,
.	18 f, 72; VI., 18 f, 72
Philip HI., k. of Naples and Sicily, 31 d; V., acknowledged in Naples, 44 a ; Philip II., Sp., 30 c, 31 b, d, 60
a,	73; HI.,31 b,35 a,73; IV., 35 a, g, 39 b, 73; V., 42
b,	72
Philip of Neri, 31 e, 60 f ; Philip-haugh, battle of, 34 a : Philippicus, 7 d Philippines discovered, 29 g; acquired by Spain, 31 b ; Philippine company formed, 49 e ' Philips, 70 b
Phillips, 65 d; Amb., 65 a; Jno., 65a
Philologists, 63 e, 64 b Philoponus, 5 b
Philosophy, 24 a, 60 b, 64 b, 70 a ; progress of in England, 64 b, 70 b; in Italy, 60 b; gra-gually detached from theology, 24 a; cabalistic and magical, 60 b; natural, great change in, 60 c ; scholastic, 17 a, 60 b ; new systems of, 60 b, 70 a Philosophers’ stone, 19 b Philosophical transactions, 63 e Phocas, 5 a, c, 11 d , Phocop, 57 b Phonetic hieroglyphics, 67 e Photius, 9 b
l Phrenology, founders of, 70 b j Physicians, 64 c, 70 b Physics, 60 c, 64 c, 67 e, 70 b Physiocrats, the, 46 b I Physiology, 64 c, 70 b l Piacenza, 52 d ' Pianists, English, 65 d ■ Piasl, king of Poland, 9 c, 56 a Piasts, dynasty of, 9 c, 11 c, 17 f,
19	g
Piazetto, Giov. Batt, 68 c i Piazza di San Marco built, 31 c Piazzi, 70 b Picard, 64 c
Picardy invaded by the English, 26 d; invaded by the Imperialists, 34 b, 35 b Piccini, Nic., 65 d Piccolimini, A2n. Sylv., 22 b, 34 b
Pichegru, general, 50 a, 52 a Pichler, C., 65 c *
Picken, Anar., 65 a Piets, 2 a, 6 b, 8 b Pictures, collections of, formed, 63 e
Picus, John, 24 a; T. Fr., 24 a Piedmont taken possession of by the French, 50 a; revolution in, 66 a, b Pierce, Edw., 60 e
Pierre, St, 63 d, 65 c, 70 a Pietro II.. de Medici, 21 1 Pigalle, 64 e Pignatelli, pope, 40 a Pilnitz, conference of, 47 c, 48 b Pilon, 60 e
Pilpay, fables of, translated into Persian, 3 f Pindar, Peter, 65 a Pindarees, rise of, 54 d Pindaree war, 54 d Pindemonti, Giov., 65 b Pine, John, 69 c Pinkerton, John, 70 c Pinkie, 26 b Pinturchio, 24 c Piombino ceded to France, 50 a Piombo, Sebastiano del, 68 c Pir Mohammed, 23 I Pisa, 12 e, 14 g, 21 1, 27 c; council of, 22 a; under the Visconti, 18 i; Leonard of, 22 b
Pisano, victory of, 18 i
Pisani, 17 a, 18 i
Pisans take Corsica and Sardinia,
12	e
Pits, J., 60 d Pitt, Chr., 65 a
Pitt, William, 42 e, 63 e, 67 d, e; ministry of, 46 d, 51 a; sinking fund of, 46 d Pitt's (the elder) administration, 46 d, 62 a; prohibitive system, 63 c
Pi Hi palace, 22 b, 57 d Pius II., pope, 22 a, 47 c; III., 27 e ; IV.,31e: VI., 48 a, 52 g; VII.,52 g; VIII., 52 g Pixis, 65 d Pizarro, 29 g Place, La, 70 b
Placentia, 27 c, 31 c ; ceded to Austria, 43 i, 44 a; council of,
13	b; ceded to Don Philip, 42 d, 43 d; taken by the French and Spaniards, 43 i
Placentinus, 17 a Placidia, 2 b
Plague of London, 38 b; in Moscow, 48 f
Plantagenets, 14 d, 16 e, 18 e,
26 c
Plantagenet, Geoffrey, 14 e Planudes, Maximus, 19 b Plassey, victory of, 46 c, 49 c, 62 b
Plate fleets taken, 38 b Platina, historian, 22 b Platina, Barth., 24 b Plato translated, 24 a Plato of Ravenna, 4 d Platonists, neo-, 60 b Platt, 51 a
Platsburgh, victory of, 55 a Playfair, Jas., 64 d; Wm., 64 d, 70 b
Playford, Jno., 65 d Plays, 61 a
Plentlenberg, Walter de, 28 g Pleskow, victory of, 28 g Pletho, George Gemislhus, 24 a P ley el, 65 d Plotinus translated, 24 a Plunkett, 51 a Pococke, Ed., 63 e Podestas, institution of, 14 f Podiebrad, G., 21 h, i Podolia conquered by the Poles, 19 g ; ceded to Poland, 41 f; ceded to Turkey, 41 d, f Poetry and works of imagination, 24 b, 59 e, 65 a, b, c, 67 e Poets, Danish, 65 b; Dutch, 65 b ; English, 24 b, 61 a, 65 a; French, 61 c, 63 e, 65 c; German, 61 c, 65 c; Hungarian, 65b; Italian, 61 b.65b; Polish, 61 c, 65 b; Portuguese, 61 b, 65 b; Russian, 65 b; Spanish, 24 b, 61 b, 65 b; Swedish, 65 b Poganatus, 5 c Poggius, 24 b Poicliera bat., 18 e, 57 b Poitou lost to France, 14 d Poland, 9 c, 11 c, 13 c, 15 c, 17 f, 19 g, 22 g, 29 a, b. 33 a, 36 i, 37 a, 41 d, 44 f, 48 e, 53 e Poland, duchy of, 3 a, 56 a; raised to a kindgoro, 13 c ; partition of, 47 c, 48 b, f, 53 c, 62 b, 66 a, b; revolution in, 53 c, 66 b, a, 67 a ; united to Russia, 53 e, 66 a ; constitution of, 48 e, 56 a Polar star, order of, instituted, 44 e
Pole, de la, 18 e Police, imperial, 28 b ; London, established, 50 b; Parisian, 39 c
Polignac, ministry of, 50 a Poliuanus, Angel, 24 b Political economy, study of, founded by Smith, 63 d; science, 59 a, 63 d, 67 d Politicians, English,67d;French, 67 d; German, 67 d Politics and foreign relations, 30 d, 56 b, 58 a, 59 e, 62 b, 66 b, 67 e
Pollenberg, Corn., 69 b Poll tax, 26 c Polo, Marco, 17 a Poltrot, 30 d
Polytechnic school at Paris, 63 c, 67 e
Pombal, marquis of, ministry of, 46 a
Pomerania invaded by the Danes, 44 d; last duke of, 36 h ; French in, 53 b ; Polish, annexed to Denmark, 17 b; settled with emigrants, 48 b
Pomfret, Jno., 65 a Pompadour, madame de,42 c,46b Pompeii discovered, 64 a, c Pompiliana, 43 f Pomponatius, P., 60 b Pondicherry, 63 ccaptured by the English, 46 c, 49 c, 50 b, 54 d ; French colony at, 41 h, 46 c, 62 b
Poniato^ki, 48 e, 53 d Ponsonby, 51 a, 67 d Ponte, Jacopo da, 68 c Pontiffs, Roman, profligacy of, 9 a Pontine marshes arained, 48 a Pont-Neuf commenced, 30 d Poole, Matth., 63 e Poonob taken, 54 d Poor-laws, 30 c, 51 a, 58 d, 65 b Pope head of the church, 56 b ; election of transferred to cardinals, 13 a; obliged to be confirmed by the emperor, 11; last payment of tribute to by Eng-land, 16 e; supremacy of, first acknowledged in England, 5 a Pope, Alex., 63 e, 64 b, 65 a Popes, 27 e, 31 e, 35 h; at Avignon, 19 a; and emperors, struggle of, 56 b; dependent upon France, 56 b; become independent of the Greek emperors, 6 a, 7 a
Pope’s temporal sovereignty, origin of, 7 a
Popery and proteatantism, contest of, 35 h ; act against the growth of. 42 d; abolished in Norway, 28 e Popham, 49 c Popish plot, 38 b Population, decay of, 5 c ; English, decreases, 59 b; of Europe, change in, 59 b Porado, 55 b Poros, fleet burnt at, 54 a Porphyrogenitus, 11 d Porpora, Nic., 65 d Porson, 67 e
Porta, C., 60 f; Gian. B. de la, 60 c
Port au Prince burnt, 49 e Porte, first negotiations of with France, 26 d
Porter, cant., 55 a; Jane and Anna Maria, 65 a Porteus riots, 42 d Portici Museum, 64 e Portland, duke of, 51 a, 67 d Porto-Bello founded, 29 g; taken by the Buccaneers, 41 k ; taken by the English, 42 d, 45 f Portocarrero, 39 c, 42 b Portraits, first painter of, 24 c Port-Royal, convent of, 35 h,
44	b
Portugal, kingdom of, 14 b, 16 a, 18 a, 20 a, 26 a, 31 a, 35 a, b, 39 a, 40 a, 42 a, 46 a, 51 b,58 b, 66 b ; Dutch attack the colonies of, 35 a; league of, with England, 51b; peace of, with France, 50 a, 51 b; subdued by Spain, 31 a; invaded by the Spaniards, 46 a, 47 g; revolutions in, 18 a, 66 a, b; treaty for the partition of, 50 a; new constitution of, 66 a Portuguese at Ormuz, 29 e; India, 23 n, 26 a ; commerce, 59 c; maritime discoveries,20 a Posselt, 70 c Possevin, 31 e
Post letters in France and England, 24 d
Post-office, new, 50 b Poets established in Indis, 33 e; introduced into Poland, 36 i; established in Turkey, 54 a Poswal, treaty of, 33 a Potatoes first planted in France,
163 b
Potemkin, ministry of, 48 f Potofki, 48 e
Potosi, mines of, discovered, 29 g Potsdam founded, 44 c Potter, 65 d; tried for conspiracy, 52 a; Jo., 63 e; Paul, 69 b
Poundage, disputes respecting, 34 a
Pourpain, G. Durand, de, 24 a Poussin, Nicholas, 68 b, 69 e;
Gaspar, 68 b, 69 e Powtran, Max., 60 e Powis, state of, 6 a Poyning’s Act, 20 d, 58 a Pozzo ai Borgo, 66 b Pradt, de, 67 d Praga stormed, 53 e Prague, diet of, 32 c ; massacre of, 36 c, d ; congress of, 52 c ; emperor imprisoned at, 18 g; besieged by the Prussians, 47 c Pragmatic sanction, 16 f, 20 e, 27 e, 42 b, c, d, 43 a, c, d, f,
45	a, 62 a, b
Predestination, controversy respecting, fomented, 9 a Prefects in France, 62 a, 66 a Premislas II., Pol., 17 f Preobraschenski regiment, revolts of, 45 a
Presburg, diet at, 28 d, 40 g;
peace of, 50 a, 52 c Presbyterianism and episcopacy, contest of, 35 h; presbyteri-anism predominates, 34 a Presbyterians expelled parliament, 34 a ; persecuted, 38 c Prescott, defeat at, 55 c Press, censorship of, in France, 50 a, 66 a; liberty of, in Baden, 66 a; liberty of, Carlsbad revolution against, 66 a; freedom of, in Denmark, 62 a ;
liberty of, in England, 38 a, 62
a,	63 e; liberty of, in France,
62	a, 66 a, 67 e; freedom of, in Sweden, 48 d, 66 a
Prester, John, 29 d Preston, 42 d; T., 61 a Pretender, manifesto of, 42 d; rebellion of, 42 d Preti, Cav. Mattei, 68 b Preussisch-Eylau, defeat of, 53 e Prevadi, defeat of, 54 a Prevesa ceded to Venice, 43 f Prevost, 65 c
Prevotal laws of Napoleon, 66 c;
of the Bourbons, 66 c Prez, Josquin de, 24 c Price, Rich., 64 b Pride, colonel, 34 a Priestley, Dr., 46 c, 64 b, 70 b Priests fanciful garments come into use, 3 d
Priests of the missions, 35 h Primaticcio, Francesco, 60 e, 68 d, 69 e
Primeval legislation, 56 c Printing invented among the Chinese, 11 b; invented at Mayence, 21 h, 22 b; first office in America, 37 e; in England, 20 d, 24 b, 59 e; introduced into Iceland, 28 e; first press in Spain, 20 b ; press introduced into Turkey, 45 b Prior, Matt., 65 a Pritchard, 70 b Prithevi Rai, 23 n Privateer expeditions, 30 c Privy council office; 64 e Proccaccini, 68 d Proceres and Procuradores, 51 c Prccida, John of, 16 h Proclus translated, 24 a Procopius, 3 e Proctor, 65 a
Procurators in France, 63 c Prodromus, Theodoras, 13 b Prohibitive system, 38 b, 62 d, 67 c
Proroe captured, 54 d Propagandist college, 35 h Property tax in France, 62 d Protestant union, 36 c Protestants, origin of, 27 e, 28 b; named Huguenots, 31 e; in Austria, 43 d; in Bohemia, 36 d; in France, 34 a, 41 c, 44 b, 48 a; in Germany, 28 b, 47 c; in Hungary, 36 e ; in Poland, 33 a, 44 f, 56 b; in Scotland, 31 e; in Zurich, 28 a Prout, 70 a
Provenpal troubadours, 24 b Provence, becomes a separate state, 4 c ; invaded by Chas. V., 26 d, 28 b; acquired by France, 16 f; joined to the empire of the Ostrogoths, 2 b, 3 c; Provence invaded by d. of Savoy, 31 c; Eleanor of, 16 e
Prusa, capital of Ott. empire, 19 1; academy of, 19 1 Prussia, 17 e, 19 f, 22 f, 28 g, 32
g,	36 h, 44 b, c, 48 b, 53 c, 62
b,	66 a, 67 c ; house of Bran-denburgli succeeds to, 36 c ; a vassal of Poland, 22 f; invaded by the Russians, 48 b, f; conquered by the Teutonic order, 17 e; reduced to a second rale power, 53 c; plan for the partition of, 47 c
Prath, defeat on the, 45 a Prynne, 34 a Psellus, Michael, 13 b Ptarsko, 21 i Puckler, prince, 65 c Puffendorf, Sami, v., 63 d Pugar, Fernando del, 22 b Pugatscheff, revolt of, 48 f Puget, P., 64 e Pulacki, 48 e Pulci, 24 b Pulleyn, Robert, 24 a Pulteney, Mr., 42 e Pultowa, defeat of, 44 e, 45 a Pultusk, victory of, 44 e Punjab invaded by Amir Sheikh Ali, 23 n; invaded by the Sieks, 49 c Purcel, 65 d Purchas, Sam., 60 d Puritan sect, 30 c, 31 e, 34 a, 35
h,	37 e, 58 a, 59 e Purveez, 3 f Pusey, 67 o Putter, 63 d
Pye, engraver, 69 c Pym, 34 a
Pynson, Rich., 59 e, 60 d Pyramids, victory of, 54 a Pyrenees, victory of, 51 c
Quadruple alliance, 43 a, c, 50 a
Quakers, 35 h, 42 d Quarles, Fr., 61 a Quarterly Review, 65 a, 67 d Quebec founded, 37 e ; taken by the English, 46 b, c, 49 f Quedlinburg acquired by Prussia, 41 c
Queenstown, victory at, 55 a Queen's coll., Oxford, 64 e Quellen, Eras., 69 a Quenel, New Testament of, 44 b Quentin, St„ battle at, 30 d, 31 b Quesnay, 62 d
Quesnay’s physiocratic system,
63	b
Quesne, du, 39 c; expedition against, 49 f
Quevedo, Franc, de, 61 b Quhele and Chattan, combat between, 18 d
Quietists founded, 40 a Quinault, Phil., 65 c Quinet, Edg., 65 « Quintana, 65 b Quiroga, 51 c, 55 b Quito, 29 g
Raab taken, 32 d, 33 c Rabant, 70 c Rabanus Maurus, 9 b Rabelais, 59 e, 61 c Rachis, 6 e Racine, Jean, 65 c Racoczi, Francis, revolts, 43 e; George, of Transylvania, 36 e; Sigismond, p. of Transylvania, 36 e ; II., George, 40 g Radagaisus invades the Roman empire, 2 c
Radburtus, Paschasius, 9 a Radcliffe, Mrs., 65 a Radclifle’s library, Oxford, 64 e Radicals, 66 a. b Radjienski, palatine, 41 d Radnor, earl, 67 d Radoald, 4 d
Radom, confederation of dissidents at, 48 e Radulf, 4 c Radzivil, 48 e Raffael, 68 b Ragimbert, 6 e Ragnor Ladbrog, 8 a, 9 c Ragusa, 52 d
Railways in England, 50 b, 63 c, 67 c; of U. S., 55 a Rajpoots attacked by Aurang Zeb, 41 h
Rajpoot princes, confederacy of,
Rajahs supplanted by the Peish-wahs, 45 d
Rakos, election field at, 21 k Raleigh, sir Walter, 30 c, 33 f, 34 a, 59 e, 60 d Ramadeva, 23 n Ramanie, victory of, 54 a Rameau, J. P., 65 d Ramenghi, Bartolommeo, 68 d Ramilies, 42 d
Ramiro I., of Aragon, 12 a; II., 14 b; I., Christian, Spain, 8 d;
11.,	of Leon, 10 c Rammekins in custody of the English, 32 a; restored by the English, 36 a Ramsay, Allan, 65 a; David, 70 c
Ramus, Peter, 60 b Rana Sanka, 29 f, 37 c Rangoon captured, 54 d Randolph, 18 d, 49 f Raphael, 59 c, e, 60 e, 68 b Rapin, 64 d Rapp, 70 c Rascelinus, 13 b Rashid, khalif, 15 f Rastadt, congress at, 50 a, 52 c Ratisbon, diet of, 28 b, 36 c, 39 b, 40 e
Ratisbon, battle at, 52 c ; duchy of, ceded to Hungary, 36 e Rationalists, rise of, 62 g Ratramus, 9 a Raucoux, 43 a Raumur, 67 e Ravaillac, 34 b
Ravenna, Greek exarchs at, 3 c, 6 c; captured by Luitbriand, 6 e; battle of, 26 d, 27 a ; siege of, 3 c
Ravensburg ceded to Prussia, 41 c Ray, Jno., 64 c
Rayahs, edict for the toleration of, 52 g
Raymond of Toulouse, 13 b, 16 f;
Mich., 65 c; de Sabonde, 22 b Raynal, Abbe, 63 d, 64 a Raynouard, 65 c Razia Begum, 23 n Razi, khalif, 11 e Razzi, Giannantonio, 68 b Real, St., 63 d, 64 d Realism, 24 a Reason, temple of, 50 a Reaumur, 64 c Recared, 2 b; II., 4 b Receswind, 4 b Record Commission, 70 c Reding, 52 b Redwald, 4 a Reed, Isaac, 65 a Reeve, 65 d
Reformation, 26 b, c, 27 e, 28 b, 68 a, b, 59 d, e; origin of the English, 27 e
Reform, parliamentary, rise of, 46 d; bill, 51 a, 66 a, b
Regale, dispute on, 40 a Reged, kingdom of, 10 b Regency, question of, 50 b Regiomontanus, Job. Muller, 22 b Regis, Pierre Syl., 64 b Registration act, 51 a Regnard, J. F., 65 c Regnault, 69 d Regnier, 21 m, 61 c Renberg, 67 d Reicbaro, 65 d
Reichenbach, convention of, 47 c, 60 b, 53 c
Reichstadt, duke of, 72 Reidinger, 69 a Reimarus, H., 64 b Reinhart, C., 69 a Reinhoed, 70 a Reiske, 63 e
Rembrandt, Paul, 59 e, 69 b Reni, Guido, 68 d Rennet, James, 70 c Rennie, Jno., 64 e Renschild, general, 44 e Repnin, general, 43 e Representative government, origin of, 16 a
Representatives of cities, firs trace of, 18 a
Republican governments supplanted by feudal system, 8 e Republicans, French, 67 e Republics, rise of, 56 a; of S. America formed, 55 b; of Holland, &c., 58 a; of Italy changed into hereditary principalities, 56 b ; of Switzerland,
56	a
Requesens, 32 a Reservatum Ecclesiasticum, 32 c 36 c
Restitution, edict of, 36 c Retford, battle at, 4 a Retz, de, 34 b, 39 c, 64 d Reuchlin, 59 e, 60 b Revel taken by the Russians, 45 a Reversals signed by the archduke Ferdinand, 28 c
Revolution in America, 46 c; in Belgium, 52 a ; in Brazil, 55 b; in Brunswick, 52 c ; of the Carbonari, 52 f; in England, 34 a, 38 b, 58 a; French, 46
b.	50 a, 52 g, 58 b, 62 b; in Geneva, 62 b; in Greece, 54 a; in Liege, 47 c; in the Netherlands, 58 a; by the Portuguese army at Oporto, 51 b; in tho Papal states, 52 g; in Sardinia, 52 a; by the Spanish army, 51 c ; in Sweden, 53 b ; in Switzerland, 52 b, 56 a; at Warsaw, 53 e
Rex Anglorum, title of, first taken, 10 a
Reyendas, PhiL,69a Reynolds, Joshua, 65 a, 69 c Rezzonico, pope Clement XIII.; 48 a
Rhazes, 11 b Rhe, expedition to, 34 a Rheggio burned, 27 d Rheims, English college at, 30 c;
minster of, built, 57 d Rbeinfeld, 36 c
Rhine, confederation of, 50 a, 52
c,	66 a ; league of the cities of,
16	g, 24 d; famous passage of, 52 c
Rhodes, colossus of, destroyed, 5 d ; captured by the Greeks, 7 d; knights of St. John established at, 19 k; attempt of the Turks upon,. 23 i; capitulates, 29 c
Rhetia wrested from the Ostrogoths, 2 c
Rhetel, duke de, 35 d Rhyme, first English writer in,
17	a
Rhymer, Thomas the, 17 a Rialto built, 31 c Ribera, Guiseppe, 55 b, 68 b Ricardo, 62 d Ricci, 35 h Riccioli, 64 c Rice, Spring, 67 d Rice introduced into Carolina, 45 f
Richardson, 63 e; Jonathan, 69 c; Sam., 65 a Richard I., of Normandy, 10 d ;
11.,	10 d; I., of England, 14 d,
57	b; IL, 18 e; III., 20 d Richard, botanist, 70 b Richelieu, ministry of, 34 b, 50 a,
58	a, b, 59 e, 60 a Richmond, duke of, 51 a; Henry,
earl of, 20 d Richter, J. P. F., 65 c Ridolfi, Carlo, 68 c Rienzi, 19 a Riego, 51 c Ries, 65 d
Riflemen introduced, 63 a Riga built, 17 e; an archbishopric, 17 a; besieged by the Poles, 44 f; taken by the Russians, 46 a; taken by the Swedes, 36 i Rigaud, 69 d, 70 b Rights, petition of, 34 a Riley, J„ painter, 69 d Rimini, Gregory of, 24 a, 27 b Rimoro III., of Leon, 10 c Rincon, Antonio del, 69 c Rio de la Plata, 29 g, 33 f Ripon, earl of, 31 a Ripperda, ministry of, 42 b, e Risbon taken, 3(6 f Risby taken by the Danes, 36 g Ritson, Jos., 65 a Ritter, 70 c
Riumin, Beschutef, count, ministry of, 48 f Rivoli, defeat at, 52 c Rixa, 19 g Rizocopus, John, 6 e Rizzio, 30 b
Robert, first duke of Burgundy, 72; count of Clermont, 72;
1.,	king of France, 10 d, 72;
11.,	10 d, 12 d, 72; Latin emp.,
17	k; the Good, king of Naples,
18	i, k; duke of Neustria, 8 e; of Normandy, 10 d, 12 d; count palatine, 21 h; II., of Scotland, 18 d; III., 18 d, 20 c
Robert, I,., 69 d Robertson, 63 e; Wm., 64 d Robespierre, 50 a Robinet, J., 64 b Robinson, Mr., 51 a Robnlcuud, Mahrattas settle in, 45 d
Robusti, Jacopo, 68 c Rocafuerte, 55 b Rochambean, 49 f Roche, Paul de la, 69 a Rochefort, military school at,63 a;
marine school at, 63 a Rochelle, peace of, 30 d
84
GENERAL INDEX.
Rochelle, reduced, 34 b Rochester, earl of, 65 a Rockingham ministry, 46 d Rocroi, victory of, 34 b, 35 b Rodeo, lord, 67 d Roderic,6c
Rodney, admiral, 46 c, 47 g Rodoan, 49 a
Rodolph, emp., 16 g; II.,32 c, 73 Rodolphine tables, 32 c Rodrigo, of Zamora, 22 b Hodri Malwynawe, 6 a Roe, sir Thomas, 37 c Roebuck, 67 d Roger of Bruges, 69 a Roger, duke of Sicily, 14 g; II., 14 g, 24 b Rogers, Sam., 65 a Roget, 70 a
Rohan, duke de, 34 b, 36 b Rohault, 64 b Rokh, Shah, 23 l,m, 49 b* Roland, 6 d ; Mad., 70 c Rollenhagen, 61 c Rollin, Chas., 64 d Rollo the Dane, 10 d Romagna ceded to the pope, 16 g Romatn, Pierre Mignaid le, 69 e Roman de Ron, 15 b.
Romance language, 8 f, 24 b, 67 e Romano, Giulio, 60 e, 68 b, c;
Eccelino da, 16 f Romanoff, dynasty of, 36 k, 73 Romanus, eiarch of Ravenna, 3 c;
1.,	Gr. emp., 11 d; II., 11 d;
111.,	13 d; pope, 9 a Romanzoff, 48 f
Romanzow, Russian ambassador, 47 c
Romberg, 65 d
Rome taken, 3 c, 8 e, 14 f, 27 e, 59 a, 68 b ; joined to France, 50 a; sacked by Odoacer, 3 c; peace of, with the Visigoths,
2	b; besieged by Vitiges, 3 c ; democracy at, 19 a; senators of, 16 i
----- Constantinople, &c., oligarchy of the bishops of, 3 d Roman empire, division of, between Arcadius and Honorius,
3	e; in the West, finally overthrown, 3 c
-------and Gr. churches, schism
between, 3 d, 5 a
-------law, 19 b, 56 c, 66 c;
republic, 52 g; manners adopted in England, 2 a Romilly, sir S., 66 c, 67 d Romney, Geo., 69 c Roncaglia, diet of, 14 f Roncesvalles, Roland’s death at, 6d
Rondeau, 55 b Ronsard, Pierre de, 61 c Rooke, 65 d; admiral, 42 b, d Rosa, Mart, de la, 65 b Rosamond, 14 d Rosas, de, 55 b Rosbecq, battle of, 18 f Roscelltn, 24 a
Roscoe on Penal Jurisprudence, 66c
-------Will., 70 c
Roscommon, earl of, 65 a Rosenmuller, 67 e Roses, wars of the, 20 d, 56 a Rospigliosi, pope, 40 a Ross, capt., 70 c Rossbach, defeat at, 47 c, 63 a Rossi, Ch., 64 e ; Aug., ib. Rossini, G., 65 d Rosso, 24 c, 68 a, 69 e Roswitha, 11 b Rotari, Piet., 68 c Rotgans, 65 b Rotharis, 4 d, 5 b Rothe, J., 22 b Rotrou, Jean de, 61 c Rothsay, duke of, 18 d Rotteck, Carl, von, 67 d, 70 c Rottenhammer, Job., 69 a Rottman, 69 a Roubilliac, L. F., 64 e Rouen, capital of Normandy, lOd; pillaged by the Normans, 8 e ; captured, 20 d
-------and Aix, parliaments of,
26 d
Roundheads, 34 a Rousseau, 46 b, 48 a, 62 b, 63 d, e, 64 b, 65 c, d Roussillon revolt* from Spain, 34 b; taken by the Spanish, 50 a
Routh, Dr., 67 e Roux, Maitre, 24 c Roveredo, victory at, 52 e Rowe, Nich., 65 a Roxalana, 33 c Roxburg, captured, 20 c Royal marriage act, 46 c Royal Society, 63 e, 64 c Royer, 67 e
Rubens, Peter Paul, 59 e, 69 a d Rubruquis, 17 a Ruccellai, Giov.. 61 b Rudolph, of Austria, 18 g; of Bavaria, 12 e; I., of Bohemia, 73; of Burgundy, 10 e; of France, 10 d; II., of Germany, 36 c
Rudshuk, capture of, 53 e, 64 a;
victory of, ib.
Rue, Pierre de la, 24 c Ruel, treaty of, 34 b Ruflo, card., 52 f'
Rugby school, 59 e Rugen, capitulation of Swedes at, 53 b
Rogians, subjugated, 3 c; numerous bodies of, taken into Italy, 3 c
Ruhlieres, Cl. Carl, de, 70 c Rnisch, Raphael, 69 b
Rukn ad din Feros, 23 n Rules, Richard de, 57 c Rum, kingdom of, 13 d, 15 d, 171
Rump parliament, 34 a, 38 b Runjeet Singh, 54 c Rupert, prince, 34 a Ruric, dynasty of, 9 c, 17 h, 33 b, 73; of Russia, 9 c Rnrik, 56 a Ruscooi, Cam., 64 e Russel, adm., 38 b; lord, executed, 38 b
Russell, 67 e; lord John, 51 a, 67 d, 70 c; Dr., 70 c Russia, 9 c, 13 c, 15 c, 17 h. 22 b, 29 b. 33 b, 36 k,41e,45 a, 63 e ; converted to Christianity, 11 a; first intercourse of England with, 30 c; emperor of, 73; first grand-prince ot, 56 a; first interferes in Persian affairs, 62 b ; war of, with Sweden, 43
a,	44 e, 45 a, 48 f; under the Tartars, 19 i; laid waste by Tartars, 29 b; peace of, with Shah Tahmasp, 45 a; first war of with Turkey, 62 b; treaty of, with the Porte, 66 b; manufactories in, 63 c; directing senate established in, 45 a, 62 c
---------- Red, re-uniled to Hungary, 19 g; ceded to Poland, 19 g
Russian trade, 48 f, 59 c, 63 c, 67 c; navy, 62 b, 63 a, 67 a; military colonies, 67 a; campaign of Napoleon, 50 a, 63; monarchy founded, 9 c Russians defeated by Livonian knights, 28 g Rulhven, Raid of, 30 b Ruyter, adm., 38 b, 40 b Ryehouse plot, 38 b Ryland, Win., 69 c Rymer, Thos., 64 d'
Rysbrach, Jn. M., 64 e Ryswick, 38 b, 39 b, c, 40 c e
Saadat-Khan independent in India, 45 d
Saalfield, defeat of, 53 e, 70 c Sabaktegin, 11 e Sabbatini, Andrea, 68 b Sabert, 4 a Sabinian, 5 a
Sacchetti, 19 b, 24 b, 64 e Sacchi, Andrea, 68 d Sacchini, 65 d
Sacheverell’s impeachment, 42 d Sachs, Hans, 61 c Sacile, defeat at, 52 e Sacrilege, law of, 50 a Sacro Bosco, John of, 17 a Sacy, Silvester de, 67 e Sadat dynasty, 23 n Sadi, 17 m
Saduk Khan, king of Persia, 49 b Safarian dynasty, 9 e Sagaralli, Gerhard, 19 b Sage, Rene le, 65 c Sahhib Gherai, 29 b St. Croix, isle of, purchased by Denmark, 44 d St. Deny, church of, 57 d St. Domingo, French expedition to, 50 a ; ceded to France, 51c St. Elmo, 27 d St. Eustace, conflict at, 55 c St. Gall, canton, 52 b St. George, company of, 57 b St. Germain-en-Laye, 30 d, 41 c St. Helena, Buonaparte banished to, 50 a
St. Louis, order of, instituted, 39 c
--------code of, 66 c
St. Maur, congregation of, founded, 35 h
St. Patrick, 6 b
St. Paul’s church, 4 a, 57 d; school, 59 e
St. Peter's at Rome, 27 e, 57 d, 60 e
St. Peter’s (Westminster abbey) founded, 4 a
St. Roch, church of, 60 e St. Sagramento ceded to Spain, 49 e
St Simonians, 52 g St. Sophia, church of, built, 3 e, 57 d
St Stephen, order of, established, 31 c
St Stephen’s chapel built, 57 d St. Sebastian, repulse at, 51 c St Vincent, cape, victory off, 51
b,	c
Saintes, defeat at, 16 e Sakti Beg, 19 n Salah ad din, 15 e Salamanca cathedral, 60 e; victory at, 51 c
Salankaman, 28 d, 40 g, 41 f Salat, J., 70 a Saldalha, marshal, 51 b Saldanha bay, victory of, 50 b Salerno, school of, 12 e Salian Franks, 56 c Saliari, 65 d
Salic law, 2 c, 18 f, 47 g, 51c, 66 c, 62 a, 66 a Salimbeui, Ventura, 68 b Salis, 29 g
Salisbury, countess of, 26 c
--------cathedral built, 57 d
Salmasius, 59 d Salt, 67 e Salt-tax, 57 a
Salt works of Bochnia, 17 f; of Wiliczka, 17 f Saluces, 31 c, 35 e Salvandy, 65 c Salvi, Giarabatista, 68 b Salviati, Francesco di, 68 a
Salzburg reinforced by emigrants, 44 c ; ceded to Bavaria, 52 c Samanians, 13 e
Samana, kingdom of, founded, 23 n
Samarcand taken, 17 n Sambajee, of Mahratta, 41 h Sam Mirza, of Persia, 37 b Samo, 4 c
Samogitia ceded to Poland, 22 f Samarcand conquered by the Arabs, 7 e Sanchez, Fr., 64 b Sancho I., Aragon, 12 a; II., of Castile, 12 a; III., 14 b; IV., of Castile and Leon, 16 b; I., of Leon, 10 c; II., of Navarre and Castile, 12 a; IV., of Navarre, 12 a; V., 14 b; VI.,
• 14 b; VII., 16 b; I., of Portugal, 14 b, 16 a; II., 16 a Sandoval, 31 a, 60 d Sandrait, Joachim van, 69 a Sandys, G., 61 a San Estevan, 39 g Sangallo, Giul., 60 e; Ant, 60 e Sanguin, 15 e Sanjar, khalif, 15 f San Miguel, 29 g Sannazaro, Jac., 61 b San Pietro, 31 c
Sanscrit literature introduced, 63 e
-------- college, 67 e
San Salvador, 26 a Santa Anna, 56 b
-----Cruz, 33 f
-----Junta, 58 a
Santander, gen., 55 b Santern, 69 d
Santiago, foundation of the order of, 14 b
Sanzo, conspiracy of, 35 g Sapieha party, 44 e Sapio, 65 d
Saracens, ravage Asia Minor, 9 d ; settle in Calabria, 8 e; driven out of Europe, 68 b ; wars of, with the Greeks, 9 d ; invade Italy, 8 e; occupy Sicily, etc., 10 e
Saragossa captured by the Christians, 14 b; revolt of, 31 b; siege of, 51 c
Saratoga, surrender at, 46 c, 49 f Sarazin, 64 e Sarbiewski, 61 c
Sardinia united to Aragon, 20 b, 21 m; acquired by Austria, 42 c, 43 c, h; exchanged by Austria for Sicily, 43 d; subdued by the English fleet, 44 a; conquered by the Pisans, 12 e; occupied by the Saracens, 10 e; given to Savoy, 44 a; conquered by Spain, 18 b. 44 a ;
(;iven up to Spain, 43 f; revo-ution in, 52 e Sarmatians, 3 e Sarnar, 52 b Sarpi, P., 59 e, 60 d Sarrans, 70 c Sarti, Gius., 65 d Sarto, And. del, 24 c, 68 a, 69 e Sassannides, dynasty of, 3 f, 5 e Sassoferato, 68 b Saumara built, 9 e Saumur, conspiracy at, 50 a Savage, 65 a
Savannah, steam-boat, 55 a
---------founded, 45 f
Savary, 70 c Savigny, 66 c, 67 e Savona, battle at, 50 b Savoy, 27 a, 34 b, 35 e, 39 f, 43 h, 47 e; restored to Emmanuel, 31 c; seized by France, 27 a, 43 f, i, 50 a, 52 e; war of, with Genoa, 35 d, 39 d, f; duke of, 28 a
Saxons, 3 b, 10 a, e, 15 c, 56 b; subdue Bohemia, 36 c; first visit England, 2 a; shake off the Frankish yoke, 4 c; invade Italy, 3 b; transplanted into Italy, 6 e
Saxon heptarchy formed in Britain, 2 a; line restored in England, 12 c
-----school founded at Rome, 4 a
Saxe, marshal, 42 d Saxe-Coburg, prince of, 50 a Saxo Grammaticus, 17 a Saxony, 14 f, 43 c, 52 c, 66 a; conquered by the Prussians, 47 c ; claimed by Spain, 43 c; invaded by the Swedes, 44 e ; dukes of, 8 g; house of, 10 e, 73
Say, Fr., 62 d; lord. 34 a, 37 e Sayab, Ala ad din, 23 n Say id Khizr Khan, 23 n Sayib Mohammed, 23 n Sayid Muborik, 23 n Sayri-Capac, 33 f Sbigniew, 15 c ScaTa, 18 i
-----at Milan, 64 e
Scaliger, Jul. Css., 59 e, 60 b Scamozzi, V., 60 e Scanderbeg, 21 1 Scandinavia, 7 c, 9 c, 11 c, 13 c, 15 c
Scania ceded to Sweden, 41 b Scarlatti, Ab., 65 d Scarron, 65 c Sceptical writers, 60 b Schalken, 69 b Schaffhausen, 28 a, 52 b Schechner, 65 a Schedone, 68 e Scheemakers, Pet., 64 e Schefer, Leop., 65 c Scheldt, dispute on the navigation of, 47 a; opened, 62 a, 63 c Schelling, 70 a; F.W.Jos.,70b
Schiavone, Andrea, 68 c Schicht, 65 d Schism, the Great, 19 a Schick, G., 69 a Schiller, F. von, 63 e, 66 c Schimelmann, 48 c Schiroelpennink, 52 a Schlegel, A. W. and F. J. E., 65 c, 67 d, e
Schleswick ceded to Denmark, 44 d
Schliermacher, 67 e, 70 a Schloser, 63 d Schlosser, 70 c Schmauss, 64 d Schneider, 65 d, 67 e Schnorr, J., 69 a Scbolarius, George, 24 a Scholastic philosophy, 13 b, 15 b,
19	b, 22 b. 24 a Scholasticus, 6 e Schomberg, count, 39 a Schonen acquired by Sweden, 19 c Schongauer, Martin, 24 c Schools founded in monasteries,
7a
-----of Athens suppressed, 3 e
Schopenhauer, 65 c Schoreel, Jo., 69 b Schroch, 64 d Schroeder, 65 d, 67 e Scbubart, 65 c Schubert, 70 a, b Schulze, 65 d, 70 a Schumaeher, Peter, 41 a Schuster, 65 d Schwartz, Ber., 19 b Schweitz, canton, 18 h, 62 b Schweppermann, 18 g Schwerin subdued by the Danes,
17	a
Scissa, 2 a
Sciences, academy of, founded at St. Petersburg, 45 a
---------Acad, des, 39 c, 63 e,
64	c
Scio, massacre of, 54 a Sclavonia subdued by the Austrians, 41 f Sclavonians, 3 b
Scotland, 6 b, 8 b, 10 b, 12 b, 14 c, 16 d, 18 d, 20 c, 26 b, c. 30 b; a fief of England, 14 c ; independence of, acknowledged,
18	d ; invaded by Henry IV.,
20	c; united to England, 30 c, 42 d 62 a; religious wars in, 30 b
Scotch rebellion, 42 d Scots and Piets, inroads of into England, 2 a
Scott, Sam., 69c ; Michael,24 a;
sir W„ 65 a, 67 e Scotus, Duos,24a; Erigena,9a, b, 24 a ; Marianus, 13 b Scribe, Eug., 65 c Scrop, Henry le, 20 d Scrzynecki, gen., 67 a Scutages, 14 d, 57 a Sculptors, Dutch, 60 e; English, 60 e, 64 e; French, 60 e; Italian, 60 e, 64 e; Spanish, 60 e
Seabury, Dr., ordination of, 48 a Sea kings, 7 c, 8 d Sebastian, k. of Portugal, 31a Sebastiani, 54 a
Secret service money, W’alpole’s,
42	e
Secundus, historian, 5 b Sedgewick, prof., 70 a Seditious meetings, act for suppressing, 51 a Segedin, peace of, 23 k Seghers, Dan., 69 a Segur, 67 e; the elder, 70 c Sehested, count, 36 f Seidlitz, 63 a
Seid Mourad, k. of Persia, 49 b Seids put to death, 45 d Seifdar Jung, 49 c Seiks, 54 c Seik wars, 45 d, 49 c Sekauder Lodi, 23 m, n, 29 f Selby, 70 b
Seleucis destroyed, 7 e Self-denying ordinance, 34 a Selim Shah Soor, 29 f, 33 e Selim I., 29 c; II., 33 c, 49 a;
111.,	54 a; sultan, 58 b, 59 a Seljuk, 13 f
Seljukian Turks, 13 d, f Sempach, battle of, 18 h Sempere, 70 c
Senate house, Cambridge, 64 e Sendomir, confederation of nobles at, 36 i
Senef, 39 c, 40 c
Senegal ceded to England, 46 c;
restored to France, 46 c Send, Ludg., 60 f Seni, 60 a Sennert, 64 b
Septennial Act passed, 42 e Septimauia conquered, 6 d Sepulveda, 60 d
Seraphim, order of the, instituted, 44 e
Serfs emancipated in Denmark, 48 c
Sergius I., pope, 5 a; II., 9 a;
111.,	11 a; IV., 13a Seringapatam, 49 c, 64 d Serlio, 60 e
Servetus, 31 e
Servia and Croatia, kingdom of, founded, 5 c
-----conquered by the Porte,
43	e; revolt of, 54 a Sesto, Caesar da, 68 d Sessions of the Empire, 52 c Sessions established, 26 b Settlement, act of, 42 e Seur, Eustache le, 69 e Sevajee, 37 c, 41 h
Seven Years’ War, 46 b, c, 47 c,
48	b, 62 b
Severia ceded to Russia, 41 d Severinus, pope, 5 a Seville, 2 b, 16 b, 27 f, 51 c, 57 b Seyfarth, 67 e
Seymour, lord, executed, 26 c Sfondrata, 31 e
Sfona, Francis, 211,27 a; Ludovico, 21 1, 27 a; Maximilian, 27 a
Shaddad, Boahaddi Ibu, 15 b Shaftesbury, trial of, 38 b Shah Alim I., k. of India, 45 d;
11..	emp. of Delhi, 49 c, 54 d Shahjehan, sultan of Mogul, 37 c Shah Rokh, k. of Persia, 45 c
-----Soofi 1., k. of Persia, 37 b
-----Sujah, 37 c
-----Zeman, 54 c
Shabin Gherai, 49 a Sbaibek Khan, 23 m, 29 e Shahnameh, 13 e Shaitan-Kuli, 29 c Shakspeare, 34 a, 59 e, 61 a, 65 c Sharfaddin, Abdsdlah, 15 b Sharpe, archbp., murdered, 38 c;
Wm., 69 c Shaw, George, 70 b Sheahs rebel, 29 c Shee, 69 c
Sheep-breeding in England, 59 b; in Spain, 69 b
Sheep, Spanish, brought into Saxony, 63 b Sheikh Faizi, 33 e
----Hasan, 19 n
Shelburne, secretary of state, 46 d; ministry of, 46 d Shelley, P. B., 65 a Shelley, Mm., 65 a Shems ad din Allmish,23 n Shenstone, Wm., 65 a Shere Shah Soor, 29 f Sheridan, 46 c, d, 51 a, 63 d, 65 a, 67 d, e Sheriffmuir, 42 d Sherifs, dynasty of, 29 d Sherlock, 44 b
Shetland conquered by the Norwegians, 11 c Shiahs, sect of, 5 d Shibli, 37 a Ship money, 34 a Shiraz seat of Persian government,
49	b
Shires, England divided into, 8 a Shirkoh, 15 e Shirley, 38 a, 61 a Shirwan conquered, 33 c; acquired by Russia, 45 a, 53 e, 54 b
Shore, Jane, 20 d; sir John, gov.
gen. of India, 49 c Shortswords, defeat of, 17 h Shrewsbury school, 59 e
----------battle of, 20 d
Shuja-al-mulk, 54 c Shumla, repulse at, 53 e, 54 a Shumsodeen, nawab of, 54 d Shute, John, 60 e Siam discovered, 26 a Siberia, principality of, 22 h
-------discovered, 60 a
Sicilian vespers, 16 f Sicily, 16 h, 18 1, 21 m, 27 d, 31 d, 35 g, 39 g, 43 f, h, 44 a, 47 f, 52 f, 66 a; taken by the African Aglabites.9 d; invaded by the Arabs, 5 d; united to Aragon, 20 b; conquered by Don Carlos, 44 a; overrun by the French, 27 d; recovered by the Greek empire, 9 d; united to Naples, 44 a, 52 f; conquered by the Normans, 12 e; subdued by the Ostrogoths, 3 c; occupied by Saracens, 10 e; exchanged by Savoy for1 Sardinia, 43 d; seized by the Spaniards, 44 a Siddoos, Mrs.,65 a Sidmouth, lord, 51 a, 67 d Sidney, Alg., 63 d; sir Philip 32 a, 59 e, 61 a Sidon taken, 15 e Sieks, 45 d
Siena revolts from Florence, 31 c; council of, 22 a
Sierra Leone, settlement of, 49 e Sieverhausen, battle of, 32 c Sieyes, abb6, 46 b; Eu. J., 67 d Sigard, 16 c
Sigebert I., k. of Austrasia, 2 c;
11..	4 c Sigeric, 2 b
Sigeth besieged, 33 c Sigered, 8 a
Sigismond, George, elector of Brandenburg, 36 h; John, elector of Brandenburg, 36 h
---------- k. of the Burgundians,
3 a; emp., 21 h, 73; k. of Hungary, 21k; of Luxemburg, 19 h ; 1., k. of Poland, 29 a ;
11..	29 a; III., 33 a, 36 g, i; k. of Sweden, 32 f, 73 ; Bat-thori, of Transylvania, 32 d, 36 e
Signorelli, Luca, 24 c, 68 a Sigonio, 60 d Sikandar Shah Soor, 33 e Silbermann, 65 d Silesia ceded to Bohemia, 19 g; incorporated with the empire, 18 g; conquered by the Prussians, 44 c; ceded to Prussia, 43 d, 47 c, 48 b Silesius, Ang., 61 c Silingi, or Vandals, 2 b Silistria, capture of, 53 e, 54 a Silk culture in Lombardy, 67 b -----exports monopolised by Messina, 39 g
----- manufactures introduced,
24 d; introduced into England, 34 a; introduced into France, 34 b; of Lyons, 67 c; in Spain, lib, 59c —— trade with Persia, 59 c Silkworms introduced from China, 3 e
Silo, 6 e
Silver mines in the Hartz mountains, 11 b; in Saxony, 59 b Silverius, 3 d
Silvester II., pope, 13 a; III., 13 a
Silveyra, 26 a Simancus, battle of, 10 c Simeon of Bulgaria, 11 d; Gr.
writer, 22 b; of Durham, 15 b Simone, Maestro, 68 b; Francesco di, 68 b
Simons, Ralph, 60 e Simplicius, 3 d
Simplon, military road over, 67 a Simson, 64 d Sinclair, sir J., 67 b Sindia, Mahadajee, 54 d ——— rise of, 49 c Sinking fund established, 46 d
------------in Holland, 62 d
Sinsheim, 39 c, 40 e Siorod, 36 f, g
Sirhund sacked by the Afghans, 45 d	*
Siri, abb6,64 d Siroes, 5 e Sisebert, 4 b Sisenand, 4 b Sismondi, 70 c Sissek, defeat at, 32 d Sisinnius, pope, 7 a Siward, 12 b
Sixtus 1V., pope, 22 a; V., 31 e Sizinski, 62 a Skelton, John, 24 b, 61 a Skinner, case of, 38 a Skippon, 34 a Skryznecki, 63 e
Slave trade, efforts for the abolishment of, commenced, 49 e; abolition of, 46 c, 51 a, 67 c ; abolished by Congress, 55 a Slavery abolished in Mexico, 55 b; Brazil, 55 b
Slavi, or Sclavonians, 3 b, 9 c ; subdued by the Germans, 10 e; invade Italy, 4 d; found the kingdom of Servia, 5 c Slavonic nations, 9 c, 11 c, 13 c, 15 c
Sleidan, Johan, 60 d Sleswick-Holstein, duke of, 28 e Sleswig subdued, 10 e Slingelandt, Pet. v., 69 b Sloan, sir H., 64 c Sloboja, armistice of, 53 e ; truce of, 54 a
Smalcaldic war, 58 a Smalcaldists, 27 e, 28 b Smaragdus, 3 c, 4 d Smart, Chr., 65 a Smirke, sir R., 64 e Smith, 59 e; Adam, 62 d, 63 d, 64 b; Hamilton, 70 b ; sir J., 70 b; Jas. and Hor., 65 a; Char., 65 a
Smith field, first cattle show, 67 b Smolensko, 29 a, 36 i; captured by the French, 53 e; ceded to Russia, 41 d
Smollett, Tob., 64 d, 65 a Snape defends the non-jurors, 44 b
Snell, Wm., 60 c Sneyders, Fr., 69 a Snowball, 70 b Soane, sir J., 64 e Sobieski, John, 40 e, 41 d, f, 62 b
Soccage tenants, 67 c Societies, agricultural, 67 b Socfefe des Amis des Noire, 49 e Society of German naturalists, 70 b
—of St. Luke, 68 a Socinian heresy, 31 e Socinianism in Poland, 33 a, 41 d Socinus, 31 e Soeur, Hub., 60 e Sofis, empire of, overthrown, 62 b Soissons, battle at, 2 c Solario, Antonio, 68 b Soleure, canton, 21 g, 52 b Solger, 70 a
Soli man, khalif of Damascus, 7 e Soliroan, 29 c, 32 d, 33 c; Shah, of Persia, 4 lg, 58 b; the Magnificent, 60 a
Solimanyah, mosque of, built, 33 c
Solimene, Francesco, 68 b Solis, 64 d; Ant. de, 59 e, 61 b Soltikof, 48 f
Solway Moss, battle of, 26 b Somers, lord, 42 e, 64 d Somerset house, 60 e, 64 e Somerset, 26 b ; beheaded, 30 c Somerville, 65 a Somner, Wm., 64 d Song, dynasty of, 17 n Sonnets, first English, 61 a Sonntag, 65 d Sonput, battle at, 33 e Soofi II., of Persia, 41 g
-----dynasty, 29 c, 45 c, 68 b
Sooni, Persian sect, 45 c Sophia, queen of Ivan L, 22 h ; electress of Hanover, 38 b, 42 d
Sorbonne, 60 e Sorel, Agnes, 20 e Soit, battle of, 44 c Sosapetra rased, 9 d Sotheby, Wm., 65 a Soubise, 34 b Soufflot, J. G., 64 e Soult, marshal, 50 a
85
GENERAL INDEX.
Sound, tolls paid by Sweden for the navigation of, 44 e Southey, II., 65 a, 67 e, 70 c South sea first reached, 29 g
----------scheme, 42 d, 45 f
Sowerby, 70 b Spada, Lionella, 68 d Spafield riots, 51 a Spagnoletto, 68 b Spabis, tumults of, 33 c Spain, 4 b, 6 c, 8 c, 10 c, 12 a, 14 a, 16 b, 20 b, 27 f, 35 b, 42 b, 61 c, 62 b; Greeks in,
3 e, 4 b; conquered by the Arabs, 6 c, 7 e ; reduced to a Roman province, 2 b; 'invasions of, by barbarians, 2 b; wrested from the khalifat of the Abassides, 6 c; Gothic monarchy of, 2 b ; goes to the Franch house of Anjou, 62 b; war of, with Morocco, 47 g; with France, 27 f, 34 b, 35 b, 39 e, 50 a; with England, 35 b, 39 b, 42 b, 46 c, 49 e; Napoleon kingdom of, 66 a; war of, with the Dutch, 35 a; with Portugal, 35 a; treaty of, with the Porte, 31 b, 47 g; war of, with Savoy, 35 e; revolutions in, 66 a, b
Spaniards expelled from Mexico, etc., 55 b
Spanish armada, 58 b, 59 a
-------succession, renounced by
the emperor, 43 c; war of, 42 b, 68 a; patriots, war of, 61 c ■ trade with the Indies cut off by the Dutch, 35 b
-------- Marche conquered by
Charlemagne, 6 d Spalding, lands inclosed at, 57 c ■Spallanzani, 64 c Sparke, Jos., 64 d Spee, Von, 61 c Speed, J., 60 d Spelman, H., 60 d Spence, 70 b Spencer, earl, 51 a Spenser, Ed.. 61a; Hugh de, 18 e Spindler, 65 c
Spinello of Arezzo, 24 c, 68 a Spinetto, marquis, 67 e Spinning machines, 63 c, 64 a ; in America, 67 c; first in France, 63 c Spinola, 36 a, c
Spinoza, Bar, 59 a, 64 b ; Benedict, 40 a
Spires, 28 b, 40 e, 42 c Spirits of wine first distilled, 19 b Spitalfields’ riots, 51 a Spohn, 67 e Spohr, 65 d Spontini, 65 d Spranger, 69 a Spurs, battle of the, 26 c Spurzheim, 70 b Spy-system, 51 a Squilaci, minister of finance, 47 g Stadler, 65 d
Stadtholdersbip made hereditary,
43	a
Stael, mad. de, 65 c, 70 c Stafarda, 39 c, f Staff, military, first permanent one, 59 a
Stafford executed, 38 b Stahl, G. E., 64 c ; E., 64 c Stahrenberg, victory of, 42 b Stainboul, 60 a
Stamp act, 38 b, 62 a; for America, 46 c, 49 f; in Prussia, 62 d Stamps begun in Holland, 58 d Stamp duties on advertisements reduced, 51 a
Standard, battle of the, 14 c Stanhope,earl, 46 c ; general, 42e Stanislaus Leczinski, k. of Poland,
44	f; Poniatopki, k. of Poland, 48 e
Stanislas, bishop of Cracow, 13 c Stanley, Ed., 64 d; lord, 51 a Star-chamber, 26 c, 30 a, 34 a, 58c
State inquisitors, 27 b —— Paper Office, 64 e Statesmen and Historians, 59 e Stati degli Prasidi, 43 c, h Statistics, 70 c Statute of Merton, 57 c Stauflacber, 18 h Stauracius, 9 d Steam boats, 55 a, 67 c
-----carriages in England, 67 c
-----engine, 63 c, 64 a
Steele, 64 b Steenkirke, 39 c, 40 b Stefano, Thomasi di, 24 c, 68 ab Steffens, 67 d, 70 a, b Stein, 53 c, 70 c Steinbock, general, 44 e Stenkil, king of Sweden, 13 c Stenkils, race of the, 13 c, 15 c Stenko Razin, insurrection of, 41 e
Stenography, 64 a Sten Sture, king of Sweden, 22 e, 28 e, f; II., 28 f, 58 a Stephen of Chartres, 13 b; k. of England, 14 d; the Saint, of Hungary, 11 a, c, 13 c; V., 17 g, 1§ h; Batbori, k. of Poland, 32 d, 33 a; II., pope, 7 a; III., 7 a; IV.. 7 a; V., 9 a; VI., 9 a; VII., 9 a; VIII., 11 a; IX., 11 a, 13 a; II., of Sweden, 15 c; III., 15c Stephens, 65 d; entom., 70 b Rob. and Hen., 59 e; R., 60 < Sterne, Laur., 65 a Stettin, peace of, 32 e; occupied by the French, 50 a, 63 c; seized by Prussia, 44 c Stevens, Geo., 65 a
Stewart, earl of Arran, 30 b; earl of Bothwell, 30 b; Dugald, 70 a; the Hebraist, 67 e Still, Jno., 61 a Stirling, battle of, 16 d Stockash, victory of, 52 c Stockholm founded, 17 d; diet of, 41 b; peace of, 44 c; royal palace, 64 e
Stoicism, revival of, 60 b Stolberg, 65 c Stolbova, 36 g, k Stollbafen, 42 c Stolzer, Thomas, 24 c Stone, Henry, painter, 69 d; Nich., 60 e
Stowe’s Chronicle, 60 d Strachan, sir R., commander, 50 b
Strada, 60 d Stradivari, 60 f Strafford, earl of, 34 a Stralsund capitulates to Charles Xn., 44 e ; siege of, 53 b Strange, sir Rob., 69 c Strasburg seized by France, 39 c; taken by Louis XIV., 62 b; burgher army of, 57 b ; insurrection at, 50 a Stratiotichus, 13 d Strauss, 65 d Streater, Rob., 69 d Strelitz corps, formation of, 59 a Strode, 34 a Stroganoff, 60 a Strozzi, Bernardo, 68 d
-------party defeated, 31 c
Stniensee, ministry of, 48 c Strutt, Jos., 64 d, 69 c Stry, V., 69 b Strype, J., 64 d
Stuart, house of, 18 d, 26 b, 34 a Stuarts in England, 62 a; restored, 38 b, 63 e Stuart, Charles Edward, the pretender, 42 d Stubbes, Geo., 69 c Sturbide, 55 b Sture family massacred, 32 f Sturleson, Snorro, 17 a Sturm, 64 c Stuyvesant, Peter, 37 e Suabia, house of, 14 f, 73 Suabian league, second, 21 h Suabians, 10 e Subsidies of England, 42 d Succession, Act of, 42 d, e ■ ■— wars of, 62 b Suckling, Jno., 61 a Sudermania, duke of, 32 f, 48 d, 53 b
Sue, Eug., 65 c Suerrir, N., 17 c Suevi become Arians, 2 b ; embrace the Catholic faith, 2 b; united to the Spanish monarchy, 2 b; invade Spain, 2 b; kingdom of, entirely overthrown, 2 b Suffolk, duke of, 26 c Suffrein, 49 c Sugar, abb£, 14 e Sugar cane first planted in Hispaniola, 29 g; introduced into Barbadoes, 37 e Suidas, 11 b, 15 b Suleiman, kbalif of Cordova, 12 a Suliman Khan, of Persia, 19 n
-------Shah, Ott. emp., 17 1
Sullivan, general, 46 c Sully, ministry of, 30 d, 34 b, 58 a, d, 59 c, 60 a, d Sultaniah ceded to the Porte, 45 b Sulzer, 64 b
Sumatra discovered, 26 a; ceded to England, 52 a Sunderland, earl, 42 e Sundgaw acquired by France, 34 b
Sunies persecuted, 19 n Sunis, sect of, 5 d Supernaturalisra, 52 g, 64 b Supremacy, laws of, 30 c 1 Surat sacked. 26 a; English at, 33 e, 34 a, 37 c Surinam, English in, 37 e Surrey, earl of, 26 c, 61 a Sussex, kingdom of, 2 a, 4 a Sutry, council of, 13 a Suwarrow, 48 f, 52 c, 53 e Svenkasund, victory of, 48 d Svein Otho of Denmark, 10 a,l 1 c Sveyn Estritson, of Denmark, 13 c — VI., of Denmark, 15 c; of England, 12 c Swainson, 70 b Swanevelt, Herm., 69 b Swan river settlements, 50 b Swante-Nilsson-Sture, 28 f Swatopolk, 13 c Swatoslav of Russia, He Sweaborg taken by the Russians, 53 a, e
Sweden. 7 c, 9 c, 13 c, 15 c, 17 c, 19 e, 22 e, 28 f, 32 f, 41 b, 44 d, e, 48 d, 53 b, 56 a, 62 c; coalition against, 62 b; code of laws for, 56 c; war of, with Denmark, 36 g, 44 d, 48 c, d; with England, 42 d, 50 b; loses German provinces, 44 e; union of Norway with, 53 b; war of, with Poland and Russia, 32 f, 33 a; revolution in, 53 b; league of, with Russia, 44 e, 45 a; war of, with Russia, 32 f, 41 e; act of union, 62a
Swedes converted, 9 a; in Saxony, 43 c
Swedish diet, 62 a
-------officers, revolt of, 48 d
Swedenborg, Emanuel, 44 b Swentibold founds the kingdom of Bohemia, 8 g Swerkers, 13 c, 15 c
Swerker II., 17 c Swift, 63 a, 65 a Swineshead, Richard, 24 a Swintila, 4 b
Switzerland, 18 h, 28 a, 32 b, 36 b, 40 d, 43 b, 47 b, 52 b; aristocratic government in, 66 a; free republic of, 21 g, 36 b; revolution in, 52 b, 56 a, 66 a Swiss confederacy formed, 18 h ; reclamation against the persecution of the Huguenots, 32 b; body guards, 63 a, 67 a; first in service of France, 59 a Sword, order of, instituted, 44 e Syagrius, 2 c Sydenham, Thos., 64 c Sydney, Algernon, 38 b Sylvester II., pope, 11 a Sylvius, ./Eneas, 21 h, i Symmachus I., 3 c, d Sympel, Lambert, 20 d Syncellus, George, 7 b Synod, Holy, established in Russia, 45 a
Syria, 3 e, f, 37 a; conquered by Ali Bey, 49 a; Greeks in, 5 c; overrun by Greeks, 11 d ; invaded by the Persians, 5 e; conquered by the Tartars, 23 1; subdued by the Turks, 13 f Szathmar, pacification of, 43 e Szidzinski, palatine, 41 d Szistova, peace of, 47 d, 49 a
Taborites, 21 i
Tabreez conquered, 33 c ; ceded to Persia, 37 a; recovered by the Turks, 37 a Tabris, pestilence at, 19 n Tagliamento, victory at, 52 c Tagus forced by the French fleet, 51 b
Taber, 11 e Taherite dynasty, 9 e Tahmasp, k. of Persia, 45 c Tahmurasp, revolt of, 41 g Taia, khalif, 11 e Tailbois, exploits of, 12 c Taillebourg, defeat at, 16 e Taille, perpetual, 58 d Taj-Mahal built, 37 c Takay, defeat of, 28 d Talavera, victory of, 51 c Talbot, 20 d Talfourd, serj., 65 a Talikote, 33 e Talleyrand, 50 a, 66 b Tallis, Thos., 60 f Talma, 65 c
Talmud of Babylon, published, 3d Tamasp I., k. of Persia, 29 e Tamerlane, 19 m, 23 n Tancred, 13 b Tanislry, 34 a
Tannenburg, victory at, 22 f Tanner, Thos., 64 d Tanucci, ministry of, 47 f Taou-Kwang, 54 e Taragooa, parliament at, 18 b Targowitz, confederation of, 48 e Tariffs, victory at, 18 c Tarik, 6 c
Tarnopol ceded to Russia, 53 e Tarnouski, 29 a Tartaglia, Nic., 59 a, 60 c Tartary, 17 n, 19 m
-----Crim, conquered by the
Russians, 48 f
Tartars invade Europe, 17 h; overrun Persia, etc., 19 m; subsidized against Russia, 29 a
-----of the Golden horde, 17 h
-----Liev and Tongusian, invade China, 17 n
-----Mantchow, attack China,
37 d
----- Tourgouth, submit to
Russia, 41 e Tarlini, 65 d
Tasso, Bern., 61 b; Torg., 31 e, 69 e, 61 b
Tassoni, Aless., 61 b Tattam, 67 e Taurellus, Nic., 60 b Tauris taken, 53 e Taurlerus, J., 19 b Taverner, Jno., 60 f Tavernier, 37 b Tavannes, 60 d Tax, first imperial,21 h ; regular, first in Venice, 58 d Taxation, in Austria, increase of, 62 d; unlimited power of the king of Denmark in, 62 d ; arbitrary in Spain, 62 d; nobility of Sweden freed from, 57 a Taxes, 30 a, 38 b, 51 a, 57 a,. 58
d,	62 d ; in England, reduced bv lord Althorpe, 66 d; in France, 66 d; in Hangary, 57 a, 58 d
Taxfin, 14 a Tax-Paulette, 58 d Taylor, 65 d ; Thomas, 70 a Tcnernigow ceded to Russia, 41 d Tcbesme, victory of, 48 f, 49 a Tea used in England, 64 a Tebriz taken, 17 m Teeg-Bahadur, chief of the Sieks, 45 d
Teflis, 53 e, 54 b Tegner, 65 b Tehan Tymur, 19 n Teheran ceded to the Porte, 45 b Teias, 3 c Tekeli, count, 40 g Telescopes, 60 a, c Telesius, Bern., 59 e, 60 b Tell, William, 18 h Tellier, 39 c Temeswaer ceded to Austria, 43
e,	45 b
Temminck, 70 b Tempesli, Antonio, 68 a
Templars suppressed, 18 b, f Temple, sir Wm., 64 d Temple of Reason, 50 a Temuchin, 17 n Tencin, card., 42 c Tenda, 31 c Teniers, David, 69 a, b Tennessee joins the Union, 55 a Tenth penny levied, 58 d Terburg, Ger., 69 b Terceira, marshal, 51 b; regency of, 51b
Ternate taken by the English, 50 b
Terneux, 67 c Terouenne taken, 30 d Terra Firma conquered, 29 g Terror, reign of, 46 b, 50 a; in Portugal, 51 b
Teschen, congress of, 47 c; peace of, 47 c, 48 b, f Tesio, canton, 52 b Test Act, 38 a, c, 42 d, 51 a,
55 c
Tetzel, 27 e
Teusina, peace of, 33 b Teutonic language supersedes the Latin, 4 c
-------order, 15 a; 19 f, 22 f, 28
g, 33a
Tewkesbury, battle of, 20 d Texas, 55 b
Texel, surrender of the Dutch fleet at, 50 b, 52 a Thames, victory of, 55 a
-------tunnel begun, 50 b
-------entered by the Dutch
fleet, 38 b Thassillo, 73 Theatins, 27 e Theatre, Oxford, 64 e Theatres, 61 a, c Theile, 65 d Thenard, 67 e, 70 b Theodatus, 3 c
Theodebeit I., 2 c; II., 2 c, 4 c Theodisel, 2 b Theodomir, 6 c
Theodora, 3 e; of Rome, 10 e; Gr. emp., 13 d
Theodoric I., 2 b; II.,2b; III., the Great, 2 b; invades Italy,
3	c, e; duke of the Saxons,
6	d
Theodore baron Neuhoff, k. of Corsica, 43 f
Theodoras I., Callopas, of Ravenna, 4 d; II., 4 d; I., pope, 5a; II.,9a
Theodosiancodeof laws published,
Theodosius III., 7 d Theologians, 19 b, 70 a Theophania, 10 e, 11 d Theo-philothropists, 48 a Theophilus, 9d Theopliylact, of Ravenua, 6 e Theophylactus Simocatta, 5 b Theosophists, 60 b, 64 b Thermometers, 60 a, 64 c Theudis, 2 b
Thibalt II., of Navarre,. 16 b, 24 b
Thibaudeau, 70 c Thibaut, 66 c
Thibet acquired by China, 49 d Thierry I., 2 c; II., 2 c ; III.,
4	c; IV., 6d; A., 67 e, 70c Thiers, Ad., 67 d, e, 70 c Thionville, defeat at, 34 b Thirlwall, Rev. C., 70 c Thirty Years’ war, 35 a, 36 c,
58 a
Thistle wood, trial of, 50 b Tholuck, 52 g Thomas of Strasburg, 24 a Thomasins, 63 d Thomasts, 24 a
Thomson, Jas.,65 a ; Dr., 70 b Thompson, 69 c, 70 b ; P., 51 a Thorismond, 2 b
Thorn founded, 17 e; peace of, 22 f; massacre of the protest-ants in, 44 f Thornhill, James, 69 c Thorpe, John, 60 e Thou, de, 34 b, 60 d Thrace ravaged by the Ostrogoths, 3 e; invaded by Russians, 13 d; ravaged by the Saracens,
7	d; conquered by the Turks, 191
Thulden, Theod. van, 69 a Thummel, 65 c Thurgau, canton, 52 b Thuringia, dukes of, 8 g; conquered, 2 c Thuringiaos, 3 b, 4 c Thurn, count, 36 c Tibaldi, 68 d Tiberias, victory of, 15 e Tiberius, Gr. Emp., 5 c; II., 3 e Tickell, Th., 65 a Ticonderago captured by the English, 49 f Tieck, Lud., 65 c, 67 e Tiepolo, Giov. Batt., 18 i, 68 c Tierney, 51 a, 67 d Tiers (tat declares itself the National Assembly, 46 b Tighe, Mrs. H., 65 a Tilly, 36 c, h, 59 a Tilsit, peace of, 50 a, 53 e Timur Leng, 19 i, m, 23 1, n;
shah, k. of Cabul, 49 c Tinchebrai, battle of, 14 d Tincton, 24 c
Tin mines of Cornwall flourish, 24 d
Tintoretto, 68 c Tiphernas, Gregorias, 22 b Tippoo Sultan, 49 c, 50 b, 54 d Tissot, 64 c Tithe bill, Irish. 51 a Tithes, 7 a, 50 b, 56 c
Tithings, England divided into,
8 a, 56 c
Titian, 59 e. 60 c, 68 c Tobacco first brought to Europe,
30	c; first brought to Turkey, 37 a ; first brought into Virginia, 37 e; monopoly, 39 c, 58 d, 62 d
Tobago ceded to England, 46 c, 50 a, b ; restored to France, 46 c. 49 f
Tobolsk founded, 33 b Toggenburg, war respecting, 21 g; disputes respecting, 43 b Toghrel Beg, 13 f; sultan of Persia, 15 f Tograi, 15 b Tonoan-Tymur, 17 n Tokay, 28 d Tolbaic, battle of, 2 c Toledo, 8 c, 16 b, 27 d. 31 b, 35 d; taken by Alfonso, 12 a; fourth council of, 4 b Toleration, edict of, 36 d ; secured to German protestants,
31	e
Tollens, 65 b
Tolosa, Navas de, battle of, 16 b Tolstoi, Russian ambassador, 45 a Tonnage, disputes respecting, 34 a Tooghlek dynasty, 23 n Tooke, Home, 51 a Toplitz, congress at, 52 d Torchi, 68 c
Torgau, victory at, 47 c; congregation at, 31 e Tories favour the Pretender, 42 d Torre, Della, family, 18 i Torricelli, 60 a, c Tornea taken, 53 b Torriani, 16 f*
Torrigiano, Piet., 60 e Torrijoz, 51 c
Torstensohn, gen., 36 c, 59 a Tortona burnt, 14 f Tortona ce^gd to Savoy, 43 i Tortuga, settlement in, 37 e Torture, judicial, introduced, 19 b ; abolished in Austria, 47 c; abolition of, in Germany,
62	c; in France, 62 c ; in judicial proceedings abolished in Sweden, 48 d
Tostig, 12 c Totila, 3 c Tott, baron de, 49 a Touche, de la, 65 c Tout taken, 30 d; ceded to France, 34 b
Toulon, surrender of, to the English, 50 b
Toulouse conquered by the Franks, 2 b; battle at, 6c; duke of, 10 d
Touqueville, 67 d Tourgouth nation, emigration of, 49 d
Tournaments, 60 a Tournay, restored to France, 26 c; acquired by France, 39 b; victory at, 50 a, b, 52 a Tournefort, D., 64 c Tournon, card., imprisoned by the Chinese emp., 44 b Tours, victory at, 6 c, 56 a; silk manufactory at, 24 d Tourville, 39 c Towns, free, rise of, 14 e Townshend, lord, 42 e; and Grafton ministry, 46 d Tower of London built, 67 d Towton, battle of, 20 d Tracis for the Times, 52 g Tracy, Destrutt de, 67 d, 70 a Trade and manufactures, 24 d, 30 c, 59 c, 63 c, 67 c Trade of the Greek empire with China, 3 e; with China, first Russian, 41 e; Danish, 59 c; Swedish, 59 c; free, in Holland, 63 c; unions, 50 b, 67 c Trading companies in England,
59	c
Trafalgar, victory of, SO b Tragedy, first English, 61 a Tragedians, English, 65 a Tranquebar settled, 36 f Transcendental philosophy, 70 a Transoxiana, 29 e Transnbstantiation, doctrine of, established, 16 i Transylvania, 32 c, 36 e; ceded to Austria, 41 f; reunited to Hungary, 40 g
Travels of Chardin,Tavernier, ficc^
63	e
Travendahl, peace of, 44 e Travenstadt, victory at, 44 e Treaty of Allahabad, 49 c; An-drussow, 41 d, e; Antwerp, 43 a; succession, between Austria and Spain, 35 a; of Ba-renwalde, 36 c ; of Bayonne,
60	a; Buen Retire, 42 d; Cambray, 27 f; Copenhagen, 45 a; commercial with Denmark, 50 b; subsidiary, of England with Austria, 42 d; subsidiary, of England with Prussia, 46 c, f; subsidiary, of France with Spain, 34 b; France with Sweden, 34 b; the Hague, 40 g; Holland with England, 52 a; of London, 50 a; of Lyons, 34 b; of Madrid, 26 d; of Methuen, 42 a, d; of Milan with France, 28 a ; for the partition of Portugal, 51 b, c; of Rendsborg, 41 a, b; of Ruel, 34 b; of Russia with China, 45 a, e; commercial, of Russia, 48 f; of Seville, 42 c; commercial, of Sweden with the United States, 48 d ; of Temeswaer, 40
J; commercial, of Turkey with ranee and Holland, 37 a ; of Turkey and the Empire, 37 a; of Vienna, 29 a; of Wehlau, 41c; of Westphalia, 59 a Trebia, victory of, 52 c Frebizond, kingdom of, 17 1; conquered by the Turks, 23 i Trelawney, 65 a Trent, council of, 28 b, 31 e Tresham, Henry, 69 c Treveris, P., 59 e Treves taken, 40 e; elector of, attacked by Spain, 35 b Trevisa, John de, 19 b Treviso, march of, ceded to Otho, 10 e
Trianon, tarif of, 50 a, 67 c Triennial parliaments, 38 a Trieste harbour founded, 47 c, 63 c ; made a free port, 43 d ; commercial company at, 63 c Trincomalee taken by tho English, 47 a
Trinidad discovered, 29 g; conquered by the English, 46 c, 49 e, 50 b; ceded to France, 61c; restored to Spain, 46 c Trinity College, Cambridge, 64e;
Oxfdrd, 64 e Triple league, 38 b Tripoli taken, 15 e, 33 c, 58 b Tripolizza recaptured, 54 a Trissino, Giov., 61 b Tristram, sir, 17 a Triumph, imitation of ancient, 31 c
Triumvirate, the Spanish, 35 c Trivet, Nicholas, 19 b Troll, archbp. of Upsala, 28 f Trollope, Mrs., 65 a Tromp, adm., 36 a, 38 b, 40 b Trotti, Gio. Battista, 68 c Troubadours, 14 e, 17 a Troxler, 67 d, 70 a Troyes, treaty of, 20 d Tubi, 64 e
Tucker, Abr., 64 b; George, 70 c Tucuroan, 33 f
Tudor, house of, 20 d, 30 c,58 a;
Owen, 20 d Tuilleries, 30 d, 60 e Tulchan bishops, 30 b Tulga, 4 b
Tulikote, battle at, 33 e Tullin, Braum., 65 b Tunis, 27 f, 29 d; becomes tributary to the Porte, 33 c; Moorish kings restored in, 29 d; subjected to the Turks, 58 b Tunnel under the Thames begun, 50 b
Tupuc* Amaru, revolt of, 49 e Turenne, 34 b, 39 b, c, 59 a, 63 a
Turgot, 46 b, 62 d, 63 b, c Turin, 39 c, 43 f, i; peace of, 18 i, 19 h ; taken by the French, 34 b
Turkestan, 9 e, 11 e; invaded by Jangez Khan, 17 n Turkey, 33 c, 49 a; English ex-
?edition against, 50 b; and ranee, fleets of, aid Corsica, 31c; and Russia, 41 f, 45 a, b, 48 f, 49 a, 62 b; and ’ Persia, peace of, 37 a; introduction of the European military system into, 67 a Turkish monarchy founded in Asia, 3 e; Egyptian fleet destroyed at Navarino, 67 a; government formed, 19 1; embassy to Vienna, 47 c Turkmans of the Black Sheep, 23 m; of the White, 23 m; expelled from Persia, 29 e Turkmaoschai, peace of, 54 b Turks conquer Bulgaria, Ac., 19 1; coalition against, 62 b; first pass into Europe, 19 1; invade Germany, 21 b, 28 b ; send embassies to the Greek emp., 3 e ; overrun Wallachia, Ac., 43 e
Turner, botanist, 70 b; Sharon, 70 c ; painter, 69 c Turpin, archbp., 9 b Tuscan fortresses garrisoned by Spaniards, 43 f
Tuscany, 35 d, 39 e, 43 g, 47 e; duchy of, 27 c, 31 c; bequeathed !o the holy see, 13 a; ceded to France, 50 a Tusser, Thos., 61 a Twiller, Wonter Van, 37 e Twysden, Rog., 64 d Tyler, Wat, 18 e, 56 a, 57 c Tymur Khan, 17 n Tyre taken, 15 e Tyrol acquired by Austria, 18 h, 40 e, 52 d; ceded to Bavaria, 52 c; insurrection in, 52 c Tyrone, earl of, 30 c Tyrrel, Jas., 64 d Tyrwhitt, Th., 65 a Tzetzes, John, 15 b
Uccello, Paolo, 68 a Uckert, 70 c Udal, Nic., 61 a Udayapur, kingdom of, 23 n Uddevalla, 41 a Uden, Lucas van, 69 a Udine, Giov. da, 68 b Uffa, 2 a
Uhland, Lud,, 65 c Ukeit, 70 c
Ukraine) given up to Russia, 41 e; ceded to Turkey, 41 d; cossacks subjugated, 33 a Uladislas I., of Poland, 13 c;
111., 15 c Uland, 67 e Ulfeld, connt, 36 f, 41 a
86
GENERAL INDEX.
Uljuitu, Kban, 19 n Ulric, duke of Wurtemburg, 28 b Ulrica Eleonora, q. of Sweden, 44 e, 73
Ulrich, 59 e; Ant.. 65 c Ulster colonised, 34 a Ulugh Beg, 23 1, m Umar, 23 n Uminski, gen., 67 a Uaura Sanctum, 19 a Unction, (eitrerae) introduced, 3d
Underwalden, canton, 52 b Ungaria, 8 b Ungus, 8 b
Uniformity, laws of, 30 c, 38 c Unigenitus, papal bull, 42 c, 44 b, 48 a
Unitarians, rise of, 31 e United Provinces declare their independence, 32 a; at the height of their power, 36 a United States' army, 55 a, 67 a; constitution of, 62 a; eiports of, 55 a; imports of, 55 a; de-clare their independence, 49 f; war of with England, 50 b; navy of, began, 55 a, 67 a; population of, 55 a; provinces of, 27 g; republic of, founded, 62 b‘ revenue of, 55 a ; roads of, 55 a; tariff, 66 d, 67 c; trade with China, 67 c University of Abo, 36 g; Alcala,
27	f; Bologna founded, 7 b ; Cambridge, 61 d; Coimbra, 19 b; Cologne, 18 g, 19 b ; Compostella, 27 f; Copenhagen, 22 c, 36 f; Cracow, 19 b, g; Dorpat founded, 53 e; Dublin, 59 e; Edinburgh, 59 e; Erfurdt, 18 g, 19 b ; Florence, 19 b, 22 b; Frankfort, 69 e; Frankfort-on-Oder,
28	b; Freiburg, 22 b; Geneva, 28 a, 59 e; Giesen, 69 e; Glasgow, 20 c, 22 b; Greifswald, 22 b; Grenoble, 19 b; Groningen, 59 e; Halle, 41 c; Heidelberg, 18 g, 19 b; Helmstadt, 59 e; Huesca, 19 b; Ingoldstadt, 21 h, 22 b; Jena, 59 e; Kiel, 59 e; Konigsberg, 28 g, 69 e; Lausanne, 28 a; Leipsic, 21 h, 22 b; Lerida, 19 b; Leyden, 59 e; Lima, 29 g; Lisbon, 16 a, 17 a, 26 a; London, 60 b, 67 e; Louvain, 22 b, 47 a; Lyons, 19 b; Marsburg, Protestant, 28 b; Mentz, 22 b; Meiico, 29 g, 69 e; Milan, 59 e; Moscow, 45 a; Munich,
67	e; Naples, 17 a; Ofen, 21
k; Oxford, 9 b, 17 a, 61 d; Padua, 16 f, 17 a; Paris, 7 b 17 a, 19 b; Pavia, 7 b, 18 i; Perugia, 19 b; Perth, 19 b; Petersburg, 53 e; Pisa, 27 c ; Poictiers, 22 b ; Quinque Ec-clesiae, 19 h ; Rheims, 30 d ; Rostock, 22 b ; Salamanca, 17 a; Siena, 19 b ; Sioroe, 36 f; Strasburg, 59 e ; Toledo, 22 bj Toulouse, 17 a ; Trier, 22 b ; Tubingen, 22 b ; Turin, 22 b ; Upsala, 22 b ; Utftcht, 59 e ; Valencia, 22 b ; Venice, 22 b; Vienna, 18 g, 19 b ; Witten-burg, 28 b, 59 e; Wurzburg, 22 b	6
University club-house, 64 e Unkiar-Skelessi, treaty of, 54 a Unterwald, 18 h
Upsal, temple at, human sacrifices in, 11 c Upsala, 28 e Uracca, 14 b
Urban II„ pope, 13 a; III., 15 a ; IV., 16 i ; V., 19 a ; VI., 19 a; VII., 31 e; VIII., 35 h, 60 a
Urbano, Pietro, 68 a; Raffaello Sanziodi, 68 b Urf6, Hou. d’, 61 c «- Urgung taken, 17 n Un, 18 h, 52 b Ursini, 19 a Uruguay, 55 b
Usbeks, 231,29 e; attack Kandahar, 37 c ; repulsed by the Persians, 45 c Uscocci, 35 c
Ushant, victory off, 46 b, 50 b Usher, 64 d Usan Hasan, 23 m Utrecht, conferences at, 42 c ; peace of, 44 a, c, 46 f, 63 a ; union of, 32 a Uzeda, duke d’, 35 a
Vacade Castro, 29 g Vacarius, 15 b
Vaccination, discovery of, 70 b Vachero, conspiracy of, 35 c Vaga, Perino Buonaccorsi del,
68	b
Vaivodes, 9 c
Val de Junquera, victory of, 10 c Val-Romei surrendered to France, 34 b, 35 e
Valois, 16 f, 27 a, 28 a ; canton, 52 b ; house of, 20 e, 30 d, 72; incorporated with France, 52 b Valdez, Melendez, 51 c, 65 b Valencia conquered, 16 b Valenciennes, 50 a, 70 b
Valentine, pope, 9 a ; le, 69 e Valetta founded, 31 d Valette, de la, 31 a, 33 c Valigfort, Richard, 19 b Valla, Laur., 22 b; Lorenzo, 24 b
Valabha, 23 n
Valladolid, parliament at, 18 c Valle, Petro della, 37 b Valma, 64 e Valmy, defeat at, 53 c Valtelin, 52 d
Valteline occupied by the Spaniards, 36 b ; disputes, 35 f Van conquered, 33 c Vanbrugh, sir Jn., 64 e, 65 a Van Buren, pres., 67 d Vandals cross over into Africa, 2 b ; overthrown in Africa, 3 e Van der Mersch, revolt under, 47 a ; Noot, revolt under, 47 a ; Velde, 65 c, 69 b, d Vandyke, Antony, 59 e, 69 a, d Vane, 34 a
Vautoo, J. Bapt., 69 d Vanni, Francesco, 68 b Vansittart, 51 a, 67 d Vanvitelli, 64 e Varanes V., 3 f Varangians, 9 c Vargas, Luis de, 55 b, 69 c Varna, battle of, 21 k, 22 g, 23 k;
taken, 54 a Vasa, house of, 73 Vasari, Giorgio, 60 d, 68 a Vasco de Gama, 20 a Vases, Hamilton collection of,. 64 e
Vasili, 73 ; Chwofski, czar, 36 k Vasilviche the Great, 22 h Vatican founded, 22 b; restored, 31
c,	e; library of, founded, 22 b Vattel, 63 d
Van, la, 64 e
Vauban’s system of fortification, 63a
Vaucelles, treaty of, 30 d, 31 b Vaud, canton, 52 b Vaudois, 26 d, 39 e, 40 a Vaughan, 65 d Vauquelin, 67 e, 70 b Vecchi, Orazio, 60 f Veccliio, Palma, 68 c Veccus, Johannes, 17 a Vega, Garc. de la, 61 b; Lope de, 59 e. 61 b Vehm, 56 c Veit, Cb., 69 a Velasquez, painter, 69 c Velley, 64 d
Velthuysen, Lamb., 64 b Vendee, civil war in, 50 a Vendome, due de, 39 b, 42 b, 43 i Venezuela, confederation of, 55 b;
first congress of, 55 b Venice, 18 i, 27 b, 35 c, d, b, 39
d,	43 f, 47 e; doges of, 4 d; black nobles of, 58 b; grand council of, formed, 56 a; ceded to Austria, 52 c ; fleet of, destroyed by the Saracens, 8 e; and Florence, league of, 18 i; acquired by France, 50 a; and Genoa, war of, 18 i; acquires many Greek islands, 211; and the Porte, war between, 31 c,
33	c, 35 c, 41 f, 43 e; league of, 21 h
Venius, Otto, 69 a Venlo taken by Marlborough, 42 c
Ventenat, 70 b Verdan taken, 53 c Verden sold to Hanover, 44 d, e Verdun, treaty of, 56 b; partition of the Carlovingian empire at, 8 e; taken, 30 d; British de-tanus at, 50 a; ceded to France,
34	b
Vergennes, ministry of, 46 b Vergniaud, 67 d
Vermandois reunited to France, 14 e; conquered, 16 f Vermont admitted into the Union, 49 f
Vernet, Charles, 69 d; Horace, 69 d; Jos., 69 d Verneuil, victory at, 20 d; marchioness of, 60 a Vernon, adro., 42 d, 45 f Verocchio, 24 c, 68 a Verona ceded to Venice, 211 Veronese, Paolo, 68 c Verrio, Antonio, 69 d Versailles, alliance of, 42 c, 62 b ; court at, 39 c; palace of, attacked, 46 b, 64 a, e; peace of, 46 b, c, 47 a, g, 49 f, 62 b Vertot, 64 d Vertue, Geo., 69 c Vervius, peace of, 30 d, 31 b Vesalius, And., 60 c Vesta discovered, 70 b Vestris, Mad., 65 a Vesuvius, eruption of, 62 f Viadini, L., 60 f Viborg, defeat of, 48 d; ceded to Russia, 45 a
Vicenza ceded to Venice, 21 1 Vicetas, 15 b Vico, Bapt., 63 d Victor II., pope, 13 a; III., 13 a, 15 a; IV., 15 a Victor-Amadeus I., d. of Savoy,
35	e; II., 3? f, 43 b; III., 47 e; k. of Sicily, 44 a
Victor Emanuel, k. of Sardinia,
52	e > St. Hugh de, 24 a; St., Richard de, 24 a
Victoria, q. of England, 50 b;
president of Mexico, 55 b Vidfame, Svar, 7 c Viellot, 70 b Vieneis, Petrus de, 17 a Vienna, 43 c; compact of, 47 c ; congress of, 62 b, d, 53 c, 66 b; council at, 19 a; entered by the French, 52 c; captured by Matthias, 21 h ; pacification of, 36 d; peace of, 50 a, 52 c,
53	d; polytechnic institution, 67 c; treaty of, 53 c, 62 b; besieged by the Turks, 28 b, 29 c, 40 e, 41 f, 58 b, 62 b
Viennet, 65 c Vieu. 69 d Vigilius, 3 d Vignola, 59 e, 60 e Vigny, Alf. de, 65 c Vigo attacked by the English, 42 b; galleons destroyed at, 42 d Vigors, 70 b
Viiaya Nagar founded, 23 n Vikingr, 7 c Villani, 19 b
Villa Nova, Arnold di, 19 b Villars, marshal, 42 c Villa-Vifosa, 39 a, 42 d Villegas, 61 b
Villeinage abolished in Denmark, 48 c; abolished in Germany, 47 c
Villele, ministry of, 60 a, 67 d Villeroi, 39 c, 42 b Villiers, ministry of, 34 a Vimiera, victory of, 51 b Vimiero, count, 65 b Vince, Samuel, 70 b Vincent, 69 d; St., cape, victory off, 50 b
Vincente, Gil., 61 b Vinci, Leonardi di, 24 c, 65 d, 68 a, d, 69 e
Vineam Domini, bull of, published, 44 b
Viola, Giov. Batt, 60 f, 68 d Virginal book of queen Elizabeth, 60 f
Virgilius, 7 b
Virginia, 30 c, 33 f, 37 e, 59 Visala deva Chouhan, 23 n Vischer, Pet., 60 e Visconti, 16 f, 21 l; John, 18 i; Barnobo, 18 i; Galeazzo, 18 i; Matteo, 18 i
Vishegrad, neace of, 19 f, g Visigoths, 2 b; become inde-
Sendent of Rome, 2 b; king-otn of, 4 b, 6 c
Vistula crossed by the French, 53 e
Vitalian, pope, 5 a Viialis, Odericus, 15 b Viiallian brothers, 19 e Vitet, 65 c Vitiges, 3 c Vitteric, 4 b Vittoria, Al., 60 e; victory of, 51 b
Vitrudhis Britannicus, 64 e Vi try, storming of, 14 e Vivien, 69 d Viziers established over the Parthian empire, 3 f Vladislas I., k. of Bohemia, 21 i;
II.,	21 i; III., Hun., 17 g, 21 k; IV., 17 g; III., Pol., 22 g; IV., 19 g; V., 19 g Vocal society, 65 d Vogelweide, Weither v. d., 24 b Vogler, 65 d Voigt, Joh., 70 c Volga, great battle at the, 29 c Volhynia, capture of, 19 i Volney, 70 c Volta, Alex., 70 b Voltaire, 46 b, 48 a, 63 e, 64 b, d, 65 c
Volterra, Daniele di, 68 a Volunteers, English, 50 b Vondel, Jos. van der, 61 c Vonitza ceded to Venice, 43 f Vortigern, 2 a Voss, J. H., 65 c Vossem, 39 c Vossius, 59 e Vouet, Simon, 69 e Vougld, battle at, 2 b Voyages and travels, 60 d Vroom, H. C., 69 d
Wace, Robert, 15 b, 24 b Wachsroann, 65 c Wager, Lewis, 61 a; W., 61 a Wagner, E., 65 c; Jac., 70 a Wagram, victory of, 50 a, 52 c Wahhabi sect, 49 a, 45 b, 54 a Wakeel, 49 b Wakefield, defeat at, 20 d Wallachia conquered by the Russians, 48 f, 49 a; occupied by Russians, 53 e, 54 a; overrun by the Turks, 43 e ; revolt of, 33 c ; subdued by the Hungarians, 19 h
Walcheren, expedition to, 50 b, 52, a, c
Waldemar I., of Denmark, 15 c;
II.,	17 b, 56 c; IV., 19 c; k. of Sweden, 17 d
Waldenses, 6 a, 14 e, 15 a, 39 e, 40 a
Waldo, Peter, 15 a Waldatate, 18 h
Wales, conquest of, 16 e Walid I., 7 e ; II., 7 e Walker, 70 b
Wall, ministry of, 47 g; governor, executed, 50 b
Wallace, sir William, 16 d, 17 a Wallenstein, 36 c, 59 a Waller. Ed., 61 a Waller’s plot, 34 a Wallia, 2 b
Wallingford-house, cabal of, 38 b Wellington, battle near, 8 a Wallis and Carteret’s voyage of discovery, 46 c Wallis, 64 c
Walpole, ministry of, 42 e, 62 a,
65	a
Walsingham’s embassy, 30 c Walter of Brienne, 18 i; the Pennyless, 13 b; de Plitten-berg, 28 g Walton, Isaac, 64 d Walton's Polyglott, 63 e Waltz composers, 65 d Walworth, 18 e .Wamba, 4 b
War and Marine, 57 b, 59 a, 63 a, 67 a
War between Poland and Prussia, 28 g, 29 a; Poland and Russia, 29 a, 33 a, 36 i, 41 d, e; Polish succession, 42 c, 43 c, i; Poland and Sweden, 32 f, 33 a. 36 i, 41 b, d ; Poland and Turkey, 36 i, 41 f; Turkey and Austria, 41 f; Turkey and France, 50 a; Turkey and Germany, 32 d; Turkey and Hungary, 28 d, 40 g, 43 e Warbeck, Perkin, 20 c, d Ward, Mrs., 65 a Wardein taken by the Turks, 40 g
Warefredus, Paul, 7 b Warren, adm., 42 d, 50 b Warsaw, citadel of, founded, 53 e; diet of, 36 i. 44 e, 48 e; duchy of, 50 a, 53 d, 66 a; duke of, 52 d; taken by the French, 53 e; revolution at, 53 e; occupied by the Russian troops, 53 e; taken by the Swedes, 41 c, 44 c Wartenberg, count de, ministry of, 44 c
Warton, Thos. and Jos., 65 a Wartowsky, 32 c Warungul taken, 23 n Warwick, 20 d; Dudley, earl of, 26 c
Warwicke, Thos., 65 d Washington, 55 a; gen., 46 c, 49 f, 62 a; seat of government,
55	a
Water Gueux, 32 a Waterloo, Ant., 69 b; battle of, 50 a; bridge, -50 b, 64 e Wathek Billah, khalif, 9 e Watson, 51 a; trial of, 50 b Watt, J., 63 c Watts, Dr. I., 65 a Webb, John, 64 e Weber, 65 d ; Veit, 24 b Webster, 67 d ; Joo., 61 a Weckherlin, Rod., 61 c Wedgewood-ware, 63 e Wegscbeider, 52 g Weigel, Val., 60 b, 65 d Weiller, v., 70 a Weimar, charter for, 52 c Weisse, 65 c
Welch invade England, 12 c Weldon. J., 65 d Welcker, Carl. Th., 67 d Welker, Rob.. 69 d Wellesley, marquis, 54 d Wellington, duke of, 50 b, 51 a,b,
66	a, b, 67 d Wells, 63 e Welser family, 59 c Wenceslas, erop., 73 Wenceslas, k. of Bohemia, 18 g;
III.,	H., 19 h; k. of Poland, 17 f; II., 19 g Wendland, 15 c Wends, 15 c Weneslas, St., 10 e Wenix, Jo., 69 b Wentworth, earl of Strafford, 34 a Wenzel, k. of Boh., 21 i Werbocz, tripartit of, 58 c Werden acquired by France, 53 c Werela, peace of, 48 d, f Weremouth plundered by the Danes, 6 a
Werf, Adrian van der, 69 b Werner, A. G., 64 c; Zach., 65 c Wernerus, 15 b Wesel seized by France, 53 c Wesleyans separate from the church, 44 b Wesley, methodist, 44 b Weasel, 65 b ; John, 22 b Wesselini, conspiracy of, 40 g Wessex, kingdom of, 2 a, 4 a West, Benjamin, 69 c; Gilb., 65 a
Westeihaas, diet of, 28 f Western empire, foundation of the second, 6 d; overthrow of,
56	a
Westmacolt, Rich., 64 e Westminster, 38 b, 40 b ; abbey built, 57 d; college, 69 e; hall built, 13 b, 19 b; review, 67 d Westmoreland, rebellion of the earl of, 30 b
Westphalia, 34 b, 35 b, 36 a, b, c, a, g, h ; 52 c, 66 a ; peace of, 34 b, 53 e, 58 a, 62 b Westwood, 70 b Wetherell, sir C., 51 a Whale-fishing, 59 c Whateley, Dr., 70 a Whetstone, 61 a Whewell, 70 a, b Whigs, 34 a, 38 b, 62 a, 67 d Whiston supports Arian doctrines, 44 b
Whitbread, 51 a, 67 d, e White, H.K., 65 a; Jno.. 60 f White-caps, revolt of, 49 d Whitehall, 60 e Whitelock, 64 d White mountain, victory of, 58 a White plains, battle of, 49 f Whitfield, methodist, 44 b Wiasma, 36 i Wickliff, 18 e, 19 a. b Wickliflites, 16 i
Widdin, revolt of the pashaof, 49a Widladmi race, end of, 13 c Wiepnowipki, of Poland, 41 d;
party, 44 f Wieland, 63 e, 65 c Wier, John, 60 b Wiglaf, 8 a Wilberforce, 51 a, 67 d Wilbrand, 70 b Wilfred, 4 d Wilibrod, 7 a
Wiliczka, salt works of, 17 f
Wilken, 70 c
Wilkes’s riots, 46 c, d
Wilkie, 69 c
Wilkins, 67 e, 70 c
Willaert, 60 f
Wille, 69 d
Willicb, 70 a
Willman, 65 d
Willmanstrand, defeat at, 44 e Wilmot, T., 61 a Wilna, 33 a, 41 e Wilhelm, meister, of Cologne, 24 c
William the Conqueror, 10 d, 12 c, 56 a, 57 b ; II., of England, 12 c, 57 b ; III., 38 b, 40 b,
42	d, 62 a, b, d; IV., 50 b; duke of Guienne, 24 b; of Holland, 16 g; p. of Orange, 32 a; II., stadt., 36 a; IV.,
43	a; V., 47 a ; of Malras-bury, 15 b; I., k. of the Ne-therlands, 52 a; of Newbury, 15 b; k. of Scotland, 14 c, 16 d; of Spires, 13 b; of Tyre, 15 b; of Wykeham, 18 e
William-Henry taken by the French, 49 f Williams, 34 a Willoughby, lord, 30 c Wilson, 65 a, d; H. H., 65 a, 67 e; Richard, 69 c ; ornith., 70 b
Wilton, battle at, 8 a Wirapfen, 36 c
Winchester, cardinal, 20 d;
school, 19 b, 61 d Winckelmann, Joh. J., 64 e Wiod, Wm., 64 e Windham, 42 e, 51 a Winifred, Saxon monk, 7 b Windsor castle, 64 e Winer, 67 e
Winkilried, Arnold of, 18 h Winter, van, Mr. and Mrs., 65 b Winthropp, J., 37 e Wirgman, 70 a
Wirtemberg, abolition of predial bondage, 67 b; constitution, 66a Wirzburg, Conrad v., 24 b Wisby conquered, 19 c, 22 f Wise, Mich., 65 d Wisemann, 67 e Wisloch, 36 c Witchcraft, 60 b Wither, Geo., 61 a Withred, 6 a Witikind, 6 e Witiza, 4 b, 6 c Witt, de, 38 b, 40 b, 70 a Wittenagemots, 2 a, 56 a Wiitstock, 36 c Witzen, battle al, 33 a Witzleben, 65 c
Wladimir I., of Russia, 11 a, c;
the Great, 13 c Wolcot, Jno., 65 a Wolf, 67 e, 70 b Wolfe, general, 46 c, 49 f Wolhgemuth, Michael, 24 c, 69 a Wollaston, Dr., 70 b; W., 64 b Wolsey, 26 c
Wonter, van Twiller, 37 e Wood, Ant. a, 64 d Wood, Mr. and Mm., 65 d Woodes, N., 61 a Woodville, Eliz., 20 d Wool the only export of England, 15 b; growth of, very flourishing in Van Dieman’s Land, 67 b
Woollen manufactures first in England, 24 d; in Russia, 67 c
Woollett, Wm., 69 c Wootten, John, 69 c Worcester, 38 b Worde, Wynkinde, 59e,60d Wordsworth, 65 a, 67 e Worlidge, Thos., 69 c Worms, alliance of, 43 i; diet of, 14 g, 21 h, 28 b, 40 e
Worsted, manufacture at, 15 b Wouvermans, Phil., 69 b Wrad, 8 b
Wrangel, 36 c, 59 a Wraxall, Nath., 70 c Wren, sir C., 64 e Wright, 70 b; capt., 50 a-Mich., 69 c Wulfhere, 4 a Wurmser, general, 52 c Wurteraburg an hereditary duchy, 21 h; kingdom of, 52 c Wurtzburg, victory at, 52 c Wurz, defeat at, 53 e Wusterhausen, treaty at, 44 c Wyat’s, sir Thomas, rebellion. 30 c
Wyatt, Jas., 64 e; Thos., 61 a Wyatville, Jeff., 64 e Wycherly, Wm., 65 a Wynants, 69 b Wyndham, W., §7 d Wynton, Andrew of, 24 b Wyon, E. and B.,
Xanthopolus. Calixtus, 19 b Xavier, 26 a, 27 e Xenes, victory at, 6 c Xiersi, edict of, 8 f Ximenes, cardinal, 20 b, 27 f, 5 b, 59 a; Garcia, 8 d
Xabui, ben Leis, 9e Yakub Bey, 23 m Yalden, Thos., 65 a Yandabn, peace of, 54 d Yaroslav, k. of Russia, 13 c Yarrell, 70 b
Yassi, peace of, 48 f, 49 a Yegros, 55 b Yemen couquered, 29 c Yeni kali ceded to Russia, 48 f Ywmanry, English, augmented,
Yermak, Hetman, 33 b Yermuk, victory of the Arabs on the, 5 c
Yezdejird, 3 f, 5 e Yezid, khalif, 5 d; II., 7 e: III., 7 e
Ynglings, race of, 9 c Yogis, revolt of, 41 h Yong-tching, emp. of China, 45 e York, archbp. of, receives the pallium from the popes, 5 a; claims spiritual superiority over Scotland, 14 c; house of, 20 d; duke of, 50 a; minster burnt, 50 b. 57 d
Yorkshire meeting, 51 a Yorktown, capitulation at; 46 c, 49 f
Youdebnik, 29 b
Young, 70 b; Arthur, 67 b;
Dr., 67 e; Edw., 65 a Ypres taken by the French, 43 a Ypsilanti, Alex., 54 a Yu-en dynasty, 17 n Yussuf, 8 c, 12 a
Zaccarello, war concerning, 35 c
Zachary, 6 e, 7 a Zachau, 65 d
Zacotecas, mines of, discovered. 29 g
Zalaca, battle of, 12 a Zama, 6 c Zamolski, 33 a Zamora, siege of, 12 a Zangaro, il, 68 b Zante, 62 e Zapolia, 33 a, b
Zapolski, John, 28 d; Stephen, 28 d
Zara, peace of, 19 h Zarlino, 60 f Zea, ministry of, 51 c Zealand, 27 g Zeck,3 a
Zehir-eddin Baber, 29 f Zehra, gardens of, 10 c Zeman, shah, 54 c Zemomysl, duke of Poland, 11c Zengi, 15 e
Zeno, 3 e; Apost, 65 b; victory of, 18 i
Ziegler, Ans. von, 65 c Ziemowit, k. of Poland, 9 c Ziethen, 63 a
Zigabenus, Euthymius, 13 b Zimisces, John, lid Zimmerman, 69 a Zingarelli, N., 65 d Zinzendorf, count, ministry of, 43 c
Zip, county of, occupied by Austrians, 47 d
Zipser cities mortgaged, 21 k Zisca, John, 21 i, 57 b Zoe, 11 d, 13 d Zollern, count of, 73 Zonares, Jo., 15 b Zoologists, 60 c, 70 b Zorndorf, victory of, 48 b
Zschokhe,-70 c Zucchero, 68 b, 69 d Zug, cauton, 52 b Zuinglius, 27 e, 28 a Zumbo, 64 e Zummerhausen, 36 c Zumsteeg, 65 d Zurich, 27 e, 28 a, 52 b Zurija, 60 d Zutphen, 27 g, 32 a
OXFORD : PRtNTED BY D. A. TALROYS.